V.M.Shirokikh, L.P.Koudrevatykh
THE STUDY OF MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
Theoretical materials for seminars

В.М. Широких, Л.П. Кудреватых
Теоретические материалы
по лексикологии современного
английского языка
Глазов 2004

Широких В.М., Кудреватых Л.П. Теоретические материалы по лексикологии современного английского языка. - Глазов, 2004. 
Рецензент: доцент каф. ром.-герм, филологии В.Н. Ивонина (ГГПИ)
Учебное пособие по курсу лексикологии современного английского языка предназначено для студентов старших курсов факультета иностранных языков педагогического вуза. Оно может быть использовано в процессе подготовки к семинарским занятиям, при написании курсовых и дипломных работ по лингвистике.
© В.М. Широких, 2004 © Л.П. Кудреватых, 2004

INTRODUCTION 
THE OBJECT OF LEXICOLOGY
1.	Lexicology as a science.
2.	Two approaches to language study.
3.	Connection of lexicology with other sciences.
4.	Theoretical and practical value of lexicology.
Lexicology as a Science
The term consists of Greek morphemes:
lexis	logos
(word, phrase)	(learning).
Lexicology studies words and phrases, i.e. vocabulary of a language.
Vocabulary consists of:
words - basic units of a given language which are the result of the association of a given meaning with a given group of sounds;
set-expressions = phraseological units - traditional stable phrases like «to rain cats and dogs», «as hungry as a wolf».
Lexicology investigates the problems of words, word-structure, word-formation in the language, the meaning of the words, the main principles of classification of the words, the laws governing the enlarging (replenishment) of the vocabulary.
Kinds of lexicology:
general - deals with the general study of words irrespective of the specific features of any particular language;
special - studies the characteristic features of the vocabulary of a given language;
historical - studies the origin, change and development of the words;
descriptive - studies the vocabulary of a given language at a given stage of its development.
Two Approaches to Language Study
Synchronic (syn = together, chronos = time).
The synchronic approach is concerned with the vocabulary of a language at a given period of time.
Diachronic (dia = through, chronos = time).
The diachronic approach deals with the changes and the development of the vocabulary in the course of time.
Synchronic approach deals with special descriptive lexicology, diachronic approach deals with special historic lexicology.
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The two approaches should not be contrasted: they are interconnected and interdependent.
Language is the reality of thought, and thought develops together with the development of society, therefore language and its vocabulary must be studied in the light of social history. Every new phenomenon in human society and in human activity in general finds a reflection in vocabulary.
E.g.: nylon (technology), sputnik (science), perestroika (social and politi-cal life).
A word, through its meaning rendering some notion, is a generalized reflection of reality.
Connection of Lexicology with Other Sciences
Lexicology is connected with other sciences which also study words, though, from different sides:
general linguistics ,
the history of the language (etymology of words) ,
phonetics (acoustic level of the words) ,
grammar (morphemes as parts of words and grammatical rules of their combining) ,
stylistics (words as stylistic devices).
Theoretical and Practical Value of Lexicology
The theoretical value consists in stimulating a systematic approach to the facts of vocabulary; in linguistic training of philologists and teachers.
The practical value of lexicology is also very great for future teachers as it improves the knowledge of the vocabulary and helps users of the language master the speaking skills.

From: THE PRACTICAL STUDY OF  LANGUAGES
by Henry Sweet

The Real Difficulty Is in the Vocabulary
The fact that the languages commonly learnt by Europeans belong mostly to the same Aryan stock, and have besides a large vocabulary in common of borrowed Latin, French, and greek words, is apt to blind them to a recognition of the fact that the real intrinsic difficulty of learning a foreign language lies in that of having to master its vocabulary. (…)
We can master enough of the grammar of any language for reading purposes within a definite period – generally less than six months – but we cannot do the same with the vocabulary unless it is already partially familiar to us in the way that the vocabulary of Italian is to all English speakers. (…)
It is evident that every language in its colloquial form must be adapted to the average capacity of its speakers. Although each language is constructed to a great extent by the philosophers and poets of the race, it cannot in the form of it which serves for ordinary intercourse go beyond the capacity of the average mind. Learning a language, therefore, is not in any way analogous to learning mathematics or metaphysics: it does not imply any attempt to enter into higher regions of thought – to commune with a higher mind. On the contrary, as the greater part of all existing languages was evolved by people in a rudimentary state of civilization, it implies the very reverse. Hence,  it is often a positive obstacle to learning a language to be rigorously logical and minutely analytical. (…) 
(pp. 64-68)
ETYMOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE ENGLISH WORDSTOCK
1.	Some basic assumptions.
2.	Words of native origin.
3.	Borrowings in the English language.
4.	Assimilation of borrowings.
Some Basic Assumptions
The most characteristic feature of English is its mixed character. While it is wrong to speak of the mixed character of the language as a whole, the com-posite nature of the English vocabulary cannot be denied.
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Some special terms:
1.	native words - words of Anglo-Saxon origin brought to the British
Isles from the continent in the 5th century by the Germanic tribes - the Angles,
the Saxons and the Jutes;
2.	borrowing - l)the process of adopting words from other languages and
2) the result of this process. Not only words, but also word-building affixes
were borrowed into English (-able, -ment, -ity). Some word-groups, too, were
borrowed in their foreign form (coup-d'etat, vis-a-vis).
In the second meaning the term borrowing is also used to denote translation-loans, or loan-translations (кальки) - words and expressions formed from the language material under the influence of some foreign words and expressions, e.g.: mother tongue < L. lingua materna, it goes without saying < Fr. cela va sans dire, wall newspaper < Russ. стенгазета.
3.	The term source of borrowing is applied to the language from which a
particular word was taken into English. The term origin of the _word should
be applied to the language the word may be traced to. E.g., the French borrow
ing table is Latin by origin (L. tabula), the Latin borrowing school came into
Latin from the Greek language (Gr. schole).
Whereas the source of borrowing is as a rule known and can be stated with some certainty, the actual origin of the word may be rather doubtful.
Words of Native Origin
Words of native origin consist for the most part of very ancient elements - Indo-European, Germanic and West Germanic cognates. The bulk of the Old English word-stock has been preserved, although some words have passed out of existence. The Anglo-Saxon stock of words makes 25-30% of the English vocabulary.
Almost all of them belong to very important semantic groups, among them form-words:
-	auxiliary and modal verbs: shall, will, should, would, must, can, may;
-	pronouns: I, you, he, my, your, his, who, whose;
-	prepositions: in, out, on, under;
-	numerals: one, two, three, four, etc.;
-	conjunctions: and, but, till, as.	
Notional words of Anglo-Saxon origin:
-	parts of the body: head, hand, arm, back;

-	members of the family and closest relatives: father, mother, brother, son,
wife;
-	natural phenomena and planets: snow, rain, wind, frost, sun, moon, star;
-	animals: horse, cow, sheep, cat;
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-	qualities and properties: old, young, cold, hot, heavy, light, dark, white,
long;
-	common actions: do, make, go, come, see, hear, eat.
Native words are highly polysemantic, stylistically neutral, enter a number of phraseological units.
Borrowings in the English Language
In its 15 century long history the English language has come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). The great influx of borrowings from these sources can be accounted for by a number of historical causes.
Due to the great influence of the Roman civilization Latin was for a long time used in England as the language of learning and religion, e.g.: absolute < absolutus, algebra < algebra, arm < armare, autumn < autumnus, beast < bes-tia, calculate < calculus, habit < habitum, intelligence < intelligentia, machine <	machina, number < numerum, propaganda <propagare, recommend < re-
comendare, sentence < sentential, square < quadrus.
Old Norse was the language of  the conquerors who were on the same level of social and cultural development and who merged rather easily with the local population in the 9th, 10th and the first half of the llth century. Examples of Scandinavian borrowings are: anger < anger, angr (горе, печаль), fellow < fellawe, felagi (товарищ, компаньон, парень), fit < fitten, fitja (устраивать, связывать), fro < fro, fra (от, из), hap < hap, happ (случай, везение, счастье), hit < hitten, hitta (попадать в цель, ударять, поражать), leg < leg, leggr (нога, кость ноги; ствол), low < low, lagr (низкий, невысокий), swain <	swayn, sveinn (мальчик, парень, молодой человек), sky < skye, sky (об-
лако, небо), skill < skile, skil (отличие, мастерство, различие,      понятие), take < taken, taka (брать, хватать, начинать), they < they (они), want < want(e), vant (недостаток, нужда, недостающий).
French (to be more exact its Norman dialect) was the language of the other conquerors who brought with them a lot of new notions of a higher social system - developed feudalism, it was the language of the upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century: action < accioun, accusation < accusacioun, agreable < agreable, arms < armes, baron < baron, baroun, chamber < chambre, chivalry < chyval(e)rie, crown < coroune, duke < duk, empress < emperesse.
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Assimilation of Borrowings
Assimilation - the process of adaptation of foreign words to the norms of the language.
Types of assimilation - phonetic, grammatical, lexical.
Degree of Assimilation
Completely assimilated words do not differ from the native ones in pronunciation, spelling, frequency, semantic structure and sphere of application. It is difficult to distinguish them from words of Anglo-Saxon origin, e.g.: pupil, master, city, river, window, dish, box. The majority of early borrowings have acquired full English citizenship.
Partly assimilated loan words fall into subgroups:
-	words not assimilated semantically, e.g.: sari, sombrero, shah, radja,
-sfeih; bei, toreador, rickshaw/picksha;
-	loan words not assimilated grammatically, e.g. nouns borrowed from    
Latin or Greek preserve their original plural inflexion: phenomenon - phe
nomena, addendum - addenda, radius - radii, antenna - antennae;
-	loan words not assimilated phonetically: communique, chaussee, cafe ;
machine, cartoon, police; bourgeois, camouflage, prestige, regime, sabotage,
memoir/(Fr.); spits (G.); pneumatics, psychology, ptolomey (Gr.);
-	loan words not completely assimilated graphically: ballet, buffet, corps,
cafe, cliche, bouquet, brioche( Fr.).
Completely unassimilated words, or barbarisms, e.g.: addio, ciao (It.), af-fiche (Fr.) - «placard», ad libitum (Lat.) - «at pleasure».
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PART I. WORD-STRUCTURE AND WORD-FORMATION
WORD-FORMATION IN GENERAL
1.	Morphemes. Their structural and semantic classifications.
2.	Historic changeability of word structure.
3.	Productive and non-productive ways of word-formation.
Morphemes. Their Structural and Semantic Classifications
A great many words have a composite nature and are made up of smaller units each having sound form and meaning. These are called morphemes, e.g. teach-er, help-less-ness, sports-man.
Like a word, a morpheme is a two-facet language unit, an association of a certain meaning with a certain sound-pattern.
Unlike a word, a morpheme is not an autonomous unit and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of the word.
Morphemes cannot be segmented into smaller units, without losing their constitutive meaning.
So, according to the complexity of the morphemic structure the words fall into segmentable (child-hood) and non-segmentable (dog).
Semantic Classification of Morphemes
Root morphemes - they are lexical centres of the words, the basic constituent parts of the words: black-ness, London-er;
affixational morphemes (prefixes/suffixes) - they have a generalized lexical meaning and the part-of-speech meaning: -er, -ist, -ее = doer of an action (N-forming suffixes).
Structural Classification of Morphemes
Free morphemes (those which coincide with the stem) - root morphemes: friend, day, week.
Bound morphemes (occur only as constituent parts of words) - affixes: dis-; re-; -ment; -hood.
Semi-bound (semi-free; can function both as an affix and as a free morpheme): half an hour - half-done, half-eaten; do well - well-known; sleep well - well-done.
Historic Changeability of Word-Structure
Language is never stable: it undergoes changes on all its levels: phonetic, morphological, lexical, phraseological, etc.
As for some morphemes, in the course of time they may become fused together or may be lost altogether. As a result of this process, radical changes
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in the structure of the word may take place: root-morphemes may turn into affixational or semi-affixational morphemes, polymorphic words may become monomorphic, compound words may be transformed into derived or even simple words.
E.g.: the present-day suffixes -hood, -dom, -like, -ship were in OE root-morphemes and stems of independently functioning words.
The present day English monomorphemic words «husband» and «woman» were in OE compound words, consisting of two stems:
hus-bond-a - хозяин, владелец дома
wif-man (OE) - woman (a simple word).
In the process of historical development some word-structures underwent reinterpretation: there are cases when simple root-words came to be understood as derived words consisting of two constituents.
E.g.: beggar, editor, cobbler - the representation of such words led to the formation of simple verbs like - «to beg», «to edit», «to cobble».
Productive and Nonproductive Ways of Word-Formation
There are different ways of forming words. Word-formation is the process of creating words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulae and patterns, e.g.: paint-er, week-end, TV, doctor - to doctor.
Productive word-formation is widely used to form a lot of new words with the help of: 1) affixation, 2) word-composition, 3) conversion, 4) shortening.
Non-productive ways of word-formation are not used now to form new words, they are: 1) back-formation, 2) sound-and-stress interchange.
AFFIXATION
1.	Affixation as a type of word-formation.
2.	Kinds of affixes.
3.	Prefixation.
4.	Suffixation.
Affixation as a Type of Word-Formation
Affixation is the formation of new words by adding derivational affixes to different types of stems.
On the derivational level derived words consist of a primary stem (simple, derived, compound) and a derivational affix.
E.g.: specialist = A (a simple stem) +-ist.
helplessness = (N + less - a derived stem) + -ness.
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chairmanship = (N + N - a compound stem) + -ship.
Degrees of derivation:
the zero degree - the stem of such words coincides with a root morpheme: penny, help, black;
the 1st degree - the stem of such words consists of a root-morpheme and a derivational affix: penni-less, help-less, black-ness;
the 2nd degree - words formed by two consecutive stages of coining: help-less-ness, friend-li-ness
Kinds of Affixes
Prefixes:
1.	Prefixation is mostly typical of verbs.
2.	Prefixes change the lexical meaning of the stems (read - reread).
3.	Only some prefixes change the part of speech formed: to en-train, to
em-bronze.
Suffixes:
1 .Suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation.
2. Suffixes also change the lexical meaning of words: helpless.
3.The majority of suffixes change the part of speech formed: child-less, to black-en. Only some suffixes do not change part of speech: brown - brownish, child - childhood, friend - friendship. They transfer a word into another semantic group (from concrete to abstract): child-childhood.
Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. There are about 51 prefixes in the system of Modern English word-formation.
Prefixes may be classified into several groups on different principles: in accordance with their l)origin, 2)meaning, 3)function and according to 4)the parts of speech formed.
Diachronical Classification
Native prefixes: be - beset, mis - misdeed, un - unable, out - outlet, under - undergo, over - overall, after - afterthought.
Foreign prefixes: pre - predominate, post - postword,j:o - coordinate, inter - interchange, super - superstar, sub - subdivide, proprorate, extra - ex-traofficial, anti - antiwar, ultra - ultramodern.
Many of the native prefixes were originally independent words, gradually they lost independence and turned into prefixes (out-, under-, over-). Prefixes mis-, un- have always functioned as prefixes.
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In the course of time English has adopted a great many prefixes from foreign languages. One must bear in mind that prefixes are borrowed not separately, but as constituent parts of borrowed words.
Quite a number of borrowed prefixes have become of international currency: extra-, inter-, sub-, anti-, counter-, super-.
Synchronical Classification According to the meaning:
1.	negative prefixes: un - unemployed, non - nonproductive, in - incor
rect, dis - disarmament, a - amoral;
2.	reversative prefixes: un - unfasten, de - deform, dis - disconnect;
3.	prefixes of time and order: fore - foretell, pre - prewar, post - postwar,
ex - expresident;
4.	prefix of repetition: re - reread;
5.	locative   prefixes:   super  -   supersonic,   sub  -  subway,   inter  -
intercontinental, trans - transatlantic, over - overcoat;
6.	pejorative prefixes: (содержит отрицательную оценку с неодобри-
тельным оттенком): mal - maltreat (вести себя жестоко по отношению к
человеку), pseudo - pseudoscientific.
According to the part of speech formed:
be - belittle, de - deface, detrain, en - entrap, enslave.
According to stylistic reference:
-	stylistically neutral (native, Latin),
-	stylistically coloured (some Greek ones).
According to productivity:
-	productive (re-, un-, dis-),
-	nonproductive (a-, for-, with-, forth-).
Suffixation
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes.
Diachronic Approach
Native suffixes:-ness, -ish, -dom, -hood, -ing, etc.
Foreign suffixes: -ation, -ment, -ance,-tron, -ist, -ism, -ess, -all, -ade.
Many of the suffixes of native origin were originally independent words. In the course of time they gradually lost their independence and turned into derivational suffixes. E.g., such noun suffixes as -dom, -hood, -ship, may be traced back to words:
-dom (OE dom = judgement, sentence - приговор)
-hood (OE had = state, condition)
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Many suffixes, however, have always been known as derivational suffixes in the history of the English language: -ish, -less, -ness, etc.
Foreign suffixes, as well as prefixes, were borrowed from other languages in the words, not separately.
Synchronical Classification According to the part of speech:
1)	noun-forming suffixes: -er, -dom, -ness, -ist, -ation, -ism, -ment, -age, -
ant, -ее, -ty, -ess;
2)	adjective-forming suffixes: -able, -less, -ful, -ic, -ous, -ent, -ish, -аl,
-ative;
3)	verb-forming suffixes: -en, -fy, -ize, -ate;
4)	adverb-forming suffixes: -ly, -ward.
According to the meaning:
1.	noun suffixes:
a)	agent, profession, occupation: -er, -eer, -ant, -ist, etc.;
b)	appurtinence: -an - Arabian, -ian - Russian, -ese - Japanese;
c)	collectivity: -age, -dom, -ery, -hood, -ship;
d)	abstract ideas: -age, -ence, -ancy, -dom, -hood, -ship, -ment, -ism, -
tion, -sion, -th, -ty, -ness;
2.	adjective suffixes:
a)	presence of quality: -ous, -ful, -able (-ible);
b)	absence of quality: -less.
According to stylistic reference:

-	stylistically neutral,
-	stylistically coloured: -oid, -i/form, -tron.
According to productivity:
-	productive,
-	non-productive: -ock, -lock, -t.
WORD-COMPOSITION
1.	Compounding as a type of word-formation.
2.	Structure of compound words: their inseparability.
3.	Meaning of compound words. Motivation in compounds.
4.	Classification of compounds.
5.	Sources of compounds.
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Compounding as a Type of Word-Formation
Compounding (or word-composition) is a productive type of word-formation. Compounds are made up by joining together at least two stems, mostly stems of notional parts of speech. Compounds have different degree of complexity: they may consist of simple and derived stems.
Structure of Compound Words: Their Inseparability
Compounds are structurally and phonetically inseparable. Structurally
compounds are characterized by the specific order and arrangement of stems.
The order in which the two stems are placed together within a compound is
strictly fixed in Modern English and it is the second stem which is the struc-
tural and semantic centre of the compound, e.g.: baby-sitter, writing-table.	
Phonetically compounds are also marked by a specific structure of their own. No phonetic changes of stems take place in composition, but the compound word gets a new stress pattern, different from the stress in the words with similar stems, e.g.: 'key, 'hole -> 'key-hole. Compounds have three stress patterns:
1.	A high or unity stress on the first component: 'doorway, 'drawback,
'blackboard.
2.	A double stress: with a primary stress on the first component and a
weaker, secondary stress on the second component: 'blood,vessel, 'washing-
ma,chine.
3.	A level stress: 'open-'eyed, 'icy-'cold, 'grass-'green.
Graphically most compounds have two types of spelling: they are written either solidly or with a hyphen. It differs from author to author and from dictionary to dictionary,
e.g.: war-path = warpath;
blood-transfusion = bloodtransfusion
word-group = wordgroup
Meaning of Compound Words. Motivation in Compounds
Semantically the majority of compounds are motivated units: their meaning is derived from the combined lexical meanings of  their components. The semantic centre of the compound is the lexical meaning of the second component modified and restricted by the meaning of the first,
e.g.: a handbag = a bag carried in the hand;
an ear-ring = a ring to wear in the ear.
But the meaning of a compound is not a simple sum of lexical meanings of its components: the new meaning dominates over the individual meanings
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of the components. The lexical meanings of both components are closely fused together to create a new semantic unit,
e.g.: a time-bomb = a bomb designed to explode at a certain time.
The meaning of the compound is also derived from the meaning of its distributional pattern.
A simple change in the order of stems with the same lexical meanings results in a drastic change in the lexical meaning of the compound,
e.g.: fruit-market is different from market-fruit;
boat-life is different from life-boat.
So, the lexical meaning of a compound is derived from the combined lexical meanings of its components and the structural meaning of its distributional pattern.
According to different degrees of motivation compounds are:
completely motivated - both components are used in their direct meanings: shoe-maker, sportsman;
partially motivated - one component - in the direct, the other - in indirect meaning: flower-bed, castle-builder;
completely nonmotivated (with lack of motivation) - there is no connection between the meaning of the compound and the lexical meanings of the components: fiddlesticks (nonsense), eye-wash (smth. said or done to deceive a person).
Classification of Compounds
According to the degree of semantic independence of stems; according to the part of speech; according to the means of connection of stems; according to the types of stems.
According to the degree of semantic independence of stems compounds are:
1)	subordinative - the components are neither structurally nor semanti-
cally equal in importance, the head member is the 2nd component:
baby-sitter, speedometer;
2)	coordinative - both stems are semantically equally important, both
words are structural and semantic centres.
Coordinative compounds may be:
a)	reduplicative - made up by repetition of the same word: fifty-fifty,
hush-hush, goody-goody;
b)	phonetically variated rhythmic twin forms: chit-chat, zig-zag, clap
trap, helter-skelter;
c)	additive - are formed from stems of the independently functioning
words of the same part of speech. They denote a person or an object that is two
things at the same time.
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Functional classification - compounds are viewed as different parts of speech, which is indicated by the second stem:
-	nouns: birthday, week-end, mother-in-law;
-	adjectives: peace-loving, long-legged;
-	adverbs: somewhere, indoors, inside;
-	pronouns: somebody, something;
-	connectives: within, without;
-	verbs:

a)	verbal and adverbial stems: to bypass, to inlay, to offset,
b)	verbs formed by means of conversion: to week-end, to gooseflesh, to
blacklist.
According to the means of connection:
-formed by placing one simple stem with a linking element after the other: spedometer, Afro-Asian (o), handicraft (i); statesman, sales-man (s);
-without any linking element: headache, man-made.
According to the type of stems joined together:
-compounds proper: formed by joining together stems of words available in the language, with or without the help of special linking element, e.g. street-lamp, age-long;
-derivational compounds: one of the stems is derived, e.g. bed-sitter, type-writer, long-legged.
Patterns of Compounds Compound nouns: N + N - pencil-case [N + (V + er)] - peace-fighter
[N + (V + tion/ment)] - office-management, price-reduction 
In general compounds are formed from the stems of words available in the language according to productive patterns: dog-days, rosy-cheeked.
Compounds can also be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolation and structural fusion of free word-groups, e.g.: forget-me-not, bread-and-butter, hook-and-ladder, man-of-war, up-to-date.
Compounding is a very interesting and problematic phenomenon. Though many investigations have been done in this field still there are many problems to be solved: typological study of patterns of compounds, motivation, compounds formed by means of conversion, the stone wall-problem (is it a free word-group or a compound word ?).
CONVERSION
1.	Definition. Treatment of conversion.
2.	Semantic relations between conversion pairs.
3.	Traditional and occasional conversion.
Definition. Treatment of Conversion
Conversion (to convert - превращать) - is highly productive in replenishing the English word-stock with new words. The term «conversion» refers to numerous cases of phonetic identity of two words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g.: paper - to paper, work - to work.
From the angle of their morphemic structure these words are root-words. On the derivational level, however, one of them (the 2nd) is a derived word, as it belongs to a different part of speech and is understood through semantic relations with the other, i.e. is motivated by it. The question arises: what serves as a word-building means in these cases? The answer is that the two words differ in the paradigm, and it is the paradigm that is used as a word-building means in cases of conversion. Hence, conversion is the formation of a new word through changes in its paradigm.
There are two main cases of conversion:
-	formation of verbs from nouns and rarely from other parts of speech:
doctor - to doctor (from noun); thin - to thin (from adjective); down - to down
(from preposition);
-	formation of nouns from verbs and rarely from other parts of speech: to
cut - a cut (from verb); but - to but (from conjunction); ups and downs (from
adverbs).
Conversion has been studied since 1891, and it was H. Sweet who first used this term in his «New English Grammar».
Conversion has been treated differently:
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1.	The treatment of conversion as a morphological way of forming words
was suggested by  prof. Smirnitsky, and according to this approach a
paradigm is considered a morphological category.
2.	Syntactic approach to conversion (functional). A number of English
and American linguists regard conversion as a kind of functional change, i.e.
they consider that a word may function as two different parts of speech at the
same time. If so, they no longer distinguish between parts of speech, i.e. be
tween nouns and verbs, nouns and adjectives, etc. But one and the same word
cannot simultaneously belong to different parts of speech.
3.	Morphological - syntactic approach to conversion (by I.V. Arnold) as
it involves both a change of the paradigm and a change of the syntactic func
tion of the word. But it is not correct because the syntactical factor is a se
quence of changes in the paradigm, that is irrelevant.
Approaches to Conversion
Diachronic approach analyses which of the two words was derived and the semantic development of each word:
smoke (дым) - to smoke (дымить) in 1663,
to smoke - коптить in 1715,
to smoke – коптиться; smoke – копоть (at present).
Synchronical approach deals with the semantic relations between words related through conversion.
Semantic Relations between Conversion Pairs
As one of the two words within a conversion pair is semantically derived from the other, it is of great theoretical and practical importance to determine the semantic relations between the words related through conversion.
I. Verbs converted from nouns. If the noun refers to some object of reality (both animate and inanimate) the converted verb may denote:
1.	action characteristic of the object, e.g. witness - to witness; ape - to
ape; dog - to dog;
2.	instrumental use of the object, e.g. elbow - to elbow; hammer - to
hammer; stone - to stone;
3.	acquistion, or addition of the object, e.g. fish - to fish; tail - to tail;
grass - to grass; dust - to dust;
4.	deprivation of the object, e.g. skin - to skin; dust - to dust; bone - to
bone; stone - to stone; tail - to tail;
5.	location (with nouns denoting places, buildings, containers), e.g. bag -
to bag; pocket - to pocket; house - to house; tail - to tail;
6.	temporal relations, e.g. winter - to winter; week-end - to week-end.
II. Nouns converted from verbs may denote:
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1.	instance (moment) of an action, e.g. to jump - a jump; to swim - a
swim; to step - a step; to laugh - a laugh;
2.	agent or doer of an action, e.g. to help - a help; to cheat - a cheat; to
bore - a bore;
3.	manner of the action, e.g. to drive - a drive; to walk - a walk; to stand
-	a stand;
4.	object or result of action, e.g. to peel - peel; to cut - a cut; to find - a
find; to make - a make.
There are cases of polysemy of verbs or nouns in conversion pairs, e.g.: to dust, to tail, to stone.
Traditional and Occasional Conversion
Modern English vocabulary is exceedingly rich in conversion pairs. Conversion in Modern English is extremely productive: new conversion pairs appear in fiction, newspaper articles and in oral communication in all spheres of human activity gradually forcing their way into the existing vocabulary and into the dictionaries as well. New conversion pairs are created on the analogy with those which already exist in the word-stock according to the semantic patterns described above.
In Modern English conversion has become highly productive in the formation of verbs, especially from compound nouns and of words formed by conversion and affixation, e.g.: microfilm - to microfilm; baby-sitter - to baby-sit; tear-gas - to tear-gas; bloodtransfusion - to bloodtransfuse.
Types of conversion:
-	traditional - the accepted use of words which are recorded in dictionar
ies, e.g. cook - to cook;
-	occasional - such words are used in a given context only, for some oc
casion and do not enter the word-stock of the language, e.g. girl - to girl; boot
-	to boot; butcher - to butcher. «I want to boot you of this house» (Priestly).
SHORTENING
1.	Shortening as a minor way of word-formation.
2.	Graphical shortening.
3.	Lexical shortening.
4.	Blending.
Shortening as a Minor Way of Word-Formation
Shortening of words is the way of the formation of new words by means of substituting a part of the word for a whole. This process affects both words
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and word-groups. Therefore, the term «shortening of words» is to be regarded as conventional.
Types of shortening:
-	graphical abbreviations,
-	lexical shortening - lexical abbreviations, clippings, blendings.
All shortened words function in the language as any other ordinary word does, so they can take on grammatical inflections: exams, MPs , PMs; may be used with both types of articles: the BBC, a bike, the lib; they may be combined with derivational affixes and may be used in compounding: YCL-er; MP-ess; Euro-MP; etc.
Graphical Shortening
These are signs representing words and wordgroups of high frequency of occurrence in written speech: scientific books, articles, advertisements, letters, etc.
Letters:
St - Street; Rd - Road; c/o - care of; Mr., Mrs., Dr., i.e.; P.S.; P.P.S.
Scientific books, dictionaries:
п., v., a., adv., prep., e.g., usu.; cf. - compare; L., &, Fr., p.m., p., pp., par - paragraph; f. - following; P.t.o.; ib., op., cit, etc.
Advertisements, announcements:
Jan., Feb., Apr., Sept., Oct., Nov., d - penny, L - denarius; oz - ounce (28,3 gm); in - inch (2,54 cm); sec. - second; gm - gramme; cm - centimetre; ft- foot (0,35m); Mon., Tues., Thurs., Fri., Sat.; L.P.- Long Playing; Tel.; a.o.b. - any other business; B.L.W. - black and white (film); m.p.h. - miles per hour.
English graphical abbreviations include rather numerous shortened variants of Latin and French words and word-groups,
e.g., a.m. (L. ante meridiem) - in the morning;
p.m. (L. post meridiem) - in the afternoon;
i.e. (L. id est) - that is;
a.d. (L. Anno Domini) - of our era;
B.C. (L. Before Christ) - of the past era;
ib. (L. ibidem) - in the same place;
b.f. (Fr. bona fide) - sincerely;
e.g. (L. exempli gratia), etc.
Latin abbreviations are usually read as their English equivalents.
Ways of formation of graphical abbreviations:
-	initial shortening: a.m.; P.t.o.;
-	syllable shortening: Oct.
In reading many of them are substituted by the words and phrases that they represent: Dr. - Doctor; Nov. - November; govt. - government.
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Lexical Shortening
Lexical Abbreviation
It is natural that in the course of time and language development some graphical abbreviations should penetrate into the sphere of oral speech and turn into lexical abbreviations, used both in oral and written speech, e.g.: MP, S.O.S., TV, etc.
They are formed by a simultaneous operation of shortening and compounding. They are made up of the initial sounds, e.g. TV, or syllables of the components of a word-group, e.g. pop-music, or a compound word: V-day.
Ways of reading lexical abbreviations:
-	as a succession of alphabetical reading of the constituent letters:
G.M.T.- Greenwich mean time; a V.I.P. - a very important person; EEC -
European Economic Community.
-	as a succession of sounds denoted by the constituent letters, i.e. as if the
abbreviations were ordinary words: UNO - United Nation Organization;
NATO; UNESCO - United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Or-
ganization.
As a rule, lexical abbreviations do not include functional words (prepositions, articles, etc.), although there are some exceptions, e.g.: R. and D. - research and development programme.
In two-member word-groups as a rule the first component is shortened: V-day; H-bomb; M-day (the first day of mobilization); D-day (decimal) - день введения десятичной монетной системы 15.02.1971; L-driver (learner driver).
In three-member word-groups the first two components are shortened, e.g.: V.J.-Day; H.M. The Queen.
Clipping
Clipping consists in the cutting off one or several syllables of a word. In some cases it is the stressed syllable which is left after cutting off, e.g.: sis -sister; doc. - doctor; telly - television; Alf - Alfred; Ed - Edward; Sam -Samuel.
Sometimes, however, the unstressed syllable remains, e.g.: phone - telephone; Alec - Alexander; plane - airplane; Bess - Elizabeth.
Kinds of clipping:
1.	aphaeresis - initial clipping, e.g.: phone - telephone; cologne - aude-
cologne;
2.	apocope - final clipping, e.g.: demo - demonstration; steno - stenogra
pher; disco - discotheque; limo - limousine; lib - liberation;
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3.	syncope - middle clipping, e.g.: maths - mathematics; pants - panta
loons; specs - spectacles;
4.	mixed type - clipping at the beginning and at the end, e.g.: frig, fridge
-	refrigeration; tec - detective; flu - influenza.
As a rule in Modern English nouns are shortened; there are very few clipped adjectives and they all belong to jargonisms, e.g.: dilly - delightful; comfy - comfortable; impass - impossible; mizzy - miserable. As for clipped verbs they are usually formed from clipped nouns by means of conversion, e.g.: to taxi - taxi; to phone - phone.
In most cases a shortened word exists in the language together with the longer word from which it is derived and usually has the same lexical meaning, differing only in emotive charge and style. In this case we speak about the variants of one and the same word, e.g.: exam - examination, sis - sister. When there is a semantic difference between a shortened unit and a longer one they must be called two distinct words, e.g.: cab - наемный экипаж, cabriolet
-	кабриолет.
Shortening affects not only words but word-groups as well. Clipped phrases appear as a result of:
-	ellipses - omission of a word or words in a phrase when the remaining
part keeps the lexical meaning of the whole phrase,
-	substantivation - dropping out of the final noun in an attributive phrase,
when the remaining adjective keeps the meaning and all the syntactical func
tions of the noun,
-	clipping of substantivated words followed by ellipses,
e.g.: pub (subst.) = public (clipping) house (ellipses); a sit-down (subst.) = a sit-down (subst.) demonstration (ellipses); pop (subst.) = popular (clipping) music (ellipses); nuke (subst.) = nuclear (clipping) bomb (ellipses).
Substantivation is often accompanied by productive suffixation, e.g.: a two-decker - a two-deck bus; outdoorsy - outdoors types of people; old-timer
-	old time man (старик).
Blending
Blending is a specific type of shortening. Blends are formed by means of merging parts of words (not morphemes) into one new word. In other words blending is compounding by means of clipped words. Many blends are shortlived, others - long-lived, e.g.: Oxbridge; medicare; popcert (popular concert); fruice (fruite + juice); pomato (potato + tomato); medinews (medical news); bo-tel (boat + hotel); yarden (yard + garden); Irangate; cashomat (cash + automat); breathalyser (breath + analyser); chifforobe (chiffonier + wardrobe); docudrama (documentary + drama); learn (lazer + beam); eurocommunism, etc.
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PART II. SEMASIOLOGY MEANING
1.	Historical approaches to the study of word meaning.
2.	Grammatical meaning.
3.	Lexical meaning.
4.	Denotational and connotational meaning.
Historical Approaches to the Study of Word Meaning
 Ancient Greece – Nature vs. Convention
In ancient Greece and Rome the study of language was a part of philosophy. The ancient Greeks first tackled the study of language. The difference between the Greek and the Roman approach was that the Greeks never took things for granted and were more educated in all areas, while the Romans took over the methods and reinterpreted them. The matter in the study of language that the Greeks were most interested in was the relation between words and the meaning of the words (word - world). Even today semanticists wander about the meaning. The origin of meaning was never accurately defined. Plato was the first one to wander about the meaning and the study of language. He was a naturalist. The major issue was the conflict between nature and conventions therefore there were two streams in the science and they were naturalism and conventionalism.
For the naturalists the major term was onomatopoeia, imitation of sounds. They believed that the word meaning should be derived from the imitation of sounds, derived from the world naturally by imitation - sound symbolism. Whenever we name an object there is something in the sound that imitates, implies the referent. There is a sound link between the referent and word. In those days the number of words that imitate nature was great, but today the number has fallen to a 2% of the vocabulary.
Phonaesthetic - There is something in the pronunciation of the word which relates certain aesthetic value and associates to a certain meaning so that the words are motivated. This was the theory of Plato, the first naturalist who believed that nature is the leading principle in life. Through the course of time the connection between the words and the sounds started to fade and nowadays there is no relation between them although the connection might have started by a way of imitation.
The conventionalists based their theory of word meaning on a convention or an agreement. The meaning for them was arbitrary. There is no link between the words and nature; i.e. the words are unmotivated. Empirically speak-
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ing there are more words that lack relation with the nature than there are onomatopoeic words. The conflict between the naturalists and the conventionalists persisted until the present days. De Saussure thought that there is no doubt what so ever that the word meaning is conventional.
Referential Theory of Meaning
The major thesis of this theory was that the word meaning is the actual referent. The meaning of a tree is the actual referent that occurs or the object in the world. This approach encounters some serious difficulties. What about those words that lack reference such as: a dragon, a unicorn, Pegasus, etc. Philosophy would say that we cannot observe unicorns but we can have a mental picture about them. Extension is a part of meaning that includes all the possible occurrences of the referent. Intention is the sense part of the word and it evokes different associations. Since reference is not enough, what is the sense of the words? Semanticists say that the word meaning should correspond to some mental images, word meaning is the image of the referent. This is the Image Theory of Meaning. There are some words such as: hello, but or and that cannot create an image and also have different images about things, e.g. dog - it is difficult for all the speakers to have one general image of a dog. That is why the approach of direct linking between the word and the referent is abandoned. The word meaning should be presented by a mediator medium, which means mentally represented reference in our mind.
Conceptual Theory of Meaning - De Saussure
Concepts are not individual occurrences but a whole set of occurrences. The concept is in our mind and it is not an image. First we conceptualise. Then we need to lexicalise the concept, then to grammaticalise it and then use it in a conversation. We should take into consideration the whole extension, which means the more data we process in the act of conceptualisation the better the concept in our mind. The problem with this theory is that it may work with words but not with units larger than words such as: phrases, clauses or sentences that also have meaning. Linguists were disappointed by the theories that have developed so far. Then there came the Chomski's theory in the sixties which was part of the generative semantics (transformational approach). Their goal was to split up the word meaning, to go beyond the smallest meaningful unit. They split the word meaning not formally into morphemes but they analysed the morphemes into further smaller units of meaning. Those units were called semantic markers (primitives, features or components). The whole theory is semantic decomposition or componential analysis. This componential analysis works fine with words that have some lexical relation such as: boy, son, woman, daughter or brother, e.g. boy - + animate; - adult; +male;
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+human. But how can we describe the red colour using this theory, red -+colour. Such examples ruin the whole theory. Also the words which are used to describe other words such as: +male or +human for a boy are lexical words themselves and according to the theory can be divided into smaller units. In order to abridge the difficulties, the semanticists created semantic distinguish-ers that are semantic markers of a first, second and third degree whose role is to describe the words semantically.
Use Theory of Meaning
This theory was set by the philosopher Widgenstern that says if you want to find a meaning of a word, you should find its use or describe it by its use. What he meant to say is that the meaning is in its usage and there are as many meanings as there are uses. A word does not necessarily have one meaning. This was the beginning of pragmatics. The actual meaning gets real in real life, in actual communication or in a specific situation. We have different meaning in different contexts.
(From: Macedonian Lectures on Lexicology)
Grammatical Meaning
The branch of lexicology that is devoted to the study of meaning is known as semasiology.
Meaning is one of the most difficult problems in the theory of language and it has been the topic of interminable discussions. There is no universally accepted definition of meaning. All the linguists agree that word-meaning is not homogeneous but it is made up of various components. They are usually described as types of meaning- grammatical and lexical.
We notice that the words worked, ended, played, etc., those denoting different actions, have a common element - the grammatical meaning of past tense.
The words girls, tables, plates have the common element of plurality.
In the word-forms sister's, worker's, etc. the common element is the case meaning.
Thus, grammatical meaning may be defined as the component of meaning which is always seen in identical sets of individual forms of different words.
Modern linguists acknowledge that some elements of grammatical meaning can be revealed by definite position of the linguistic unit in relation to other linguistic units, i.e. by its distribution. So, word-forms reads, plays, asks, etc. have one and the same grammatical meaning as they can all be found in identical distribution, e.g., only after the pronouns he, she, it and before adverbs like well, usually, today , etc.
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The distribution of other word-forms reveals another grammatical meaning: took, repeated, asked are always found not only after the pronouns he, she, it, but also after I, you, we, they, and before the adverbs yesterday, last week, a year ago, etc.
Lexical Meaning
Besides grammatical meaning words have lexical meaning. The words go, goes, went, going, gone, having different grammatical meanings, have one and the same semantic component denoting the process of movement. This is the lexical meaning of the words. The lexical meaning may be described as the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions.
The irrelation of the lexical and the grammatical meaning and the role played by each varies in different word-classes and even in different groups of words within one and the same class. In some parts of speech the prevailing component is the grammatical type of meaning. In linking verbs and auxiliary verbs (to be, to have, to turn, to grow, to do) the grammatical meaning prevails.
He is a teacher. - He will be a teacher.
He has a good voice. - He has done it well.
He turned his head. - He turned pale.
He grew a clever boy. - He grew red at those words.
He did it himself. - He did not read this book.
Denotational and Connotational Meaning
The lexical meaning is not homogeneous either, it consists of:
-	denotational meaning (semes) - component of the lexical meaning that
makes communication possible; the basis of the lexical meaning is some no
tion;
-	connotational meaning which is divided into emotive charge and stylis
tic reference. The emotive charge shows the amount of emotion which a word
possesses; it is one of the objective features proper to words as linguistic units
and it forms part of the connotational component of meaning. Emotive charge
is clearly seen in emotional words denoting different emotions and feelings,
e.g.: love, hatred, despair, joy, grief, etc.
Besides it can be seen in some groups of synonyms, e.g.: large, big, tremendous; like, love, worship; girl, girlie. There is difference in the emotive charge of the members of these sets.
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The emotive charge varies in different parts of speech. In some of them, e.g. in interjections which all don't name anything but express feelings of a speaker, the emotive charge prevails, e.g.:
Alas! - the feeling of sadness,
gosh - the feeling of surprise,
ah, oh, dear me - a general feeling.
In conjunctions it practically does not exist.
Not all the words have emotive charge, e.g.: table, pen, window.
Emotive charge should not be confused with emotive implication which the words may get in speech. Unlike the emotive charge the emotive implication of the word largely depends on the individual experiences of the speaker. Subjective words devoid of any emotional element may possess in the case of individual speakers strong emotive implication, e.g.: a cigarette, exam, hospital, lexicology, football.
LEXICAL MEANING: STYLISTIC REFERENCE
1.	Stylistic reference
2.	Functional style of speech.
3.	Division of vocabulary into different layers.
4.	Formal vocabulary.
5.	Informal vocabulary.
Stylistic Reference
Stylistic reference and emotive charge of words are closely connected and to a certain degree interdependent. As a rule, stylistically coloured words, i.e. words belonging to all stylistic layers except the neutral style are observed to possess a considerable emotive charge. This can be proved by comparing stylistically coloured words with their neutral synonyms. The colloquial words daddy, mummy are more emotional than the neutral father, mother. The slang words mum, bob are more expressive than their neutral synonyms silent, shilling; the poetic yon and steed carry a heavier emotive charge than their neutral synonyms there and horse.
Functional Style of Speech
In a highly developed language like English or Russian the same idea may be expressed differently in different situations. This difference depends on the style of speech. In general, the style means the collective characteristics of writing, diction, or any artistic expression and the way of presenting things.
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Linguistically, a functional style may be defined as a system of expressive means peculiar to a specific sphere of communication.
The lexicological treatment of style is based on the principle of ^lexical oppositions. The basis of opposition is created by the similarity of denotational meaning, the distinctive feature is the stylistic reference. The broadest binary division is into formal and informal (colloquial) English.
Division of Vocabulary into Different Layers
Stylistically words can be subdivided into formal, neutral and informal layers. The formal and informal layers contain a number of subgroups. The main aspect of the formal layer is its bookish characher, which makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the informal layer is its lively spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character: it can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity.
Both formal and informal words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of bookish words approaches the neutral layer and has a tendency to pass into that layer. The same may be said of the upper range of the informal layer: it can very easily pass into the neutral layer. The lines of demarcation between informal and neutral, on the one hand, and bookish and neutral, on the other hand, are blurred. Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language.
Formal Vocabulary
Literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech:
1.	common literary words (learned words) - mostly polysemantic, used in
books of elevated style and in books on science, e.g.: calamity, proceed, en
deavour, farewell, to behold;
2.	terms - words associated with a definite branch of science, used mostly in scientific works, but which may appear in newspaper, publicistic and belles-letters style; they are usually monosemantic, e.g.: terms of chemistry - oxygen, hydrogen, acid; terms of medicine - penicillin, influenza; physics - nucleus; art - renaissance, gargoyle. With the increase of general education many
words, once terms, have passed into the common literary, e.g.: TV, radio, loan;
3.	officialese and journalese - words used in mass media to describe oc
currences of political life, e.g.: memorandum, voting;
4.	poetic words and archaisms, e.g.: ere - before; mere -lake; yon - there; nay - no; steed - horse; warrior - soldier; welkin - sky;
5.	barbarisms and foreign words. Barbarisms - words of foreign origin
not entirely assimilated into English. They have an appearance and pronuncia-
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tion of their native language, e.g.: au revoir; maitre d'hotel; achtung; bitte; basta; voila (here). Barbarisms are words which have become facts of the English language and are registered in dictionaries. Foreign words do not belong to English, are not registered in dictionaries. In printed works they are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature. Barbarisms, on the contrary are not made conspicuous in the text.
Informal Vocabulary
The informal part is traditionally subdivided into literary colloquial (cultivated speech), familiar colloquial, low colloquial (illiterate speech). Literary colloquial is used by educated people in classical literature in the course of ordinary conversation or when writing letters to intimate friends. Familiar colloquial is more emotional and much more free and careless than literary colloquial. It is also characterised by a great number of jocular words, ironical expressions and nonce-words.
Low colloquial is illiterate popular speech. It includes:
1.	slang-words that are regarded as violation of the norms of Standard
English, e.g.: dirt (money), dotty (mad), the cat's pyjamas (the correct thing),
bread-basket (stomach), governor (father), sleeper (a course of lectures), faky
(suspicious). Slang is easily understood by the English-speaking people and is
only regarded as something not quite regular;
2.	jargonisms (argot) - words marked by their use within a particular so
cial group and having a secret character. Jargonisms are usually old words
with entirely new meaning imposed on them, e.g.: to асе (универс.) - полу
чить высшую оценку на экзамене, six (студ.) - уборная, sneak (шк.) - ябе
да, Charley - лопух; heavy cream - толстушка; horse - героин; bread -
деньги; acid - наркотик; bin - сумасшедший дом; out-of-sight - классный,
потрясный, клёвый; cold turkey - голая правда;
3.	professionalisms - words used in a definite trade, profession. They
commonly designate some working process, tools, instruments: tin-fish - sub
marine; outer - a knockout blow; egg - bomb;
4.	dialectical words are those which in the process of integration of the
English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their
use is generally confined to a definite locality, e.g.: kirk - церковь; firth -
устье реки; naething; eneugh; maister;
5.	vulgarisms - coarse words that are not generally used in public. There
are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them should not even be fixed
in common dictionaries. They are euphemistically called «four-letter» words.
A lesser degree of vulgarisms is presented by words like damn, bloody, son of
a bitch, to hell and others: rabbit!- черт подери!; rat (you)! - пропади ты
пропадом!
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6. spontaneous colloquial coinages. Only some of them are fixed in dictionaries; most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace, e.g.: newspaperdom; allrighmik - соглашатель; touch-me-not-edness. The meaning of literary coinages can easily be grasped by the reader because of the use of the productive means of word-building, and also from the context.
CHANGE OF MEANING
1.	Change of meaning as a linguistic phenomenon.
2.	Causes of semantic change.
3.	Nature of semantic change: metaphor and metonymy.
4.	Results of change of meaning.
Change of Meaning as a Linguistic Phenomenon
In the course of the historical development of a language, the meaning of words change, e.g.: glad had the meaning of bright in OE; husband had the meaning of master of the house-hold; meat had the meaning of food, etc.
Change of meaning has been profoundly studied. This problem embraces three points (aspects):
1.	the causes of semantic change;
2.	the nature of semantic change;
3.	the result of semantic change.
When we discuss the causes of semantic change we concentrate on the factors which bring about this change, we try to find out why the word changed its meaning, what circumstances cause and stimulate their development.
When we analyse the nature of semantic change we try to understand how different changes of meaning were brought about, how it happened (under what conditions).
When we analyse the result of the semantic change we try to find out what has changed. We do it by comparing the result and the original meanings and describe the difference between them.
Causes of Semantic Change
There are two groups of causes of semantic change: extralinguistic (historical) and linguistic factors.
Extralinguistic causes
In nation's social life, in its culture, knowledge, technology, arts, changes occur in all spheres of human activities. Newly created objects, new notions
29

and phenomena must be named. There are two main ways for providing new names for newly created notions: making new words, and borrowing foreign ones. There is one more way: it is applying some old word to a new object or notion.
E.g.: the word carriage had and has the meaning of a vehicle drawn by horses. But with the first appearance of railways in England, it received a new meaning - a railway car; pen —> feather, metal, ball pen; sail - плавать под парусами —> плавать (о любом судне).
Some changes of meaning are due to purely linguistic causes, i.e. factors acting in the language system. Linguistically speaking, the development of new meanings, and also a complete change of meaning, may be caused by the influence of other words, mostly of synonyms.
The process of changing the meaning of words due to collision of synonyms is called discrimination of synonyms. Other examples of discrimination of synonyms: land (страна, земля) - country (Fr.) - страна, stool (стул, табурет) - chair (Fr.) - стул, meat (пища, мясо) - food (Fr.) - пища, deer (животное любое, олень) - animal (Fr.) животное.
The next linguistic process is ellipses - the omission of a word in a phrase and the meaning of the whole word-group is transferred to the remaining component. E.g.: the OE verb steorfan (to starve) meant to perish. When the verb to die was borrowed from the Scandinavian, these two synonyms, which were very close in their meaning, collided, and, as a result, to starve gradually changed into its present meaning: to die (or suffer) from hunger. Already in the 14th century the word hunger gradually stopped to be used in this phrase and the verb itself got this meaning.
Other examples of ellipses: a sit-down (demonstration); a daily (newspaper); a monthly (magazine); a taxi (cab).
The third linguistic cause is linguistic analogy. It is found out that if one of the members of a synonymic set gets a new meaning, other members of this set change their meaning accordingly. E.g., verbs synonymous with catch (grasp, get, etc.) got the meaning to understand.
Nature of Semantic Change: Metaphor and Metonymy
To answer the question «how new meanings develop» we must investigate the inner mechanism of this process. A necessary condition of any semantic change, no matter what the cause, is some connection, some association between the old meaning and the new. There are two kinds of association involved in different semantic changes: similarity of meanings and contiguity of meanings.
Similarity of meanings, or metaphor may be described as a semantic process of associating two referents, one of which in some way resembles the
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other. In other words, metaphor is a transference of meaning on the basis of similarity, e.g.: the word hand got in the 16th century the meaning of a «pointer of a clock or a watch» because of the similarity of one of the functions performed by the hand.
The words denoting parts of human body are widely used metaphorically in different languages, e.g.: the leg of the table; the foot of the hill; the neck of a bottle; the tongue of the flame; the mouth of a pot, river, cave. In this case we create the figurative meaning of a word. Thus, we must differentiate between the primary meaning of a word and its derived meaning, that is the meaning which the word got in the language development.
If a metaphor is based on physical properties it is called a simple or linguistic metaphor. Simple metaphors can be classified according to the physical properties of the similarity on which they are based:
1.	appearance or form: bridge - мост, переносица; nut - орех, голова;
arm - рука, ветка. A lean person may be called a skeleton, a tall and lean per
son is sometimes called a lamp-post;
2.	temperature: boiling hot - кипяток, сердитый (горячий) человек;
3.	position: the head and the foot of a page;
4.	colour: the names of some flowers and shrubs are commonly used to
denote their colours: lilac - сирень, сиреневый; violet - фиалка, фиолето-
вый;
5.	function of use: hand - рука, стрелка часов;
6.	movement: caterpilar-tractor - гусеничный трактор; foxtrot - бег ли
сы, фокстрот (танец); albatros - альбатрос (птица), аэроплан.
Sometimes two or more of these kinds of resemblances are combined: the ear of a pitcher is something like a human ear in form, appearance and position, or the eye of a needle is similar to part of a human face in form and position.
In English there are many words and phrases in which the names of the animals are metaphorically used to denote human qualities, in this case we observe resemblance of qualities of animals and people, e.g.: a bear - a surly person; cat, sheep, snake, lion, monkey, parrot, goose, duck, etc. Horse is used as a kind of prefix to indicate size or coarseness: horse-laugh - a loud laugh; cf. Russian - ржание, horse-play - грубое развлечение, игра, horse-sense -грубоватый, здравый смысл. A few verbs belong to this class of animal names: to ape, to monkey - to imitate; to rat - to desert smb. in difficulty. There is a great many of idiomatic phrases containing the names of animals, insects, birds, etc.: it rains cats and dogs; to flog a dead horse; dog-cheap; to have a bee in one's bonnet.
Transference of meanings may be based on resemblance not only between two physical objects, but also a concrete object and an abstract notion,
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e.g.: bar - барьер (a physical object); social bars - социальные барьеры; racial bars - расовые барьеры.
Contiguity of meaning, or metonymy may be described as the semantic process of associating two referents, one of which makes part of the other or is closely connected with it. In other words, metonymy is a transference of meanings on the basis of contiguity. Contiguity is a more complex phenomenon as compared with similarity and it may be of different kinds.
The word hand besides the meaning «pointer of a clock» (metaphor) also developed the meaning «worker». This meaning is based on another kind of association: hands are the most important feature that is required of a person engaged in physical labour (association of an object and the process). Another example: ABC - the alphabet (part of the whole).
The simplest case of metonymy is that of synecdoche. A synecdoche is a trope by which
1.	a part is made to stand for the whole or
2.	the whole for a part.
E.g.: grey-beard - an old man (cf. Russian - послушай, борода!); motor - motor-car; to save one's skin; bigwig - важное лицо, шишка.
The names of different animals are commonly used to mean their furs and sometimes - meat: fox, rabbit, hare, sable, tiger, etc. Names of different organs can be used metonymically: lend me your ears! - послушайте меня! head -голова, начальник; he has a good eye for old books - наметанный глаз; brain - мозг, голова (ум!).
Some other cases of metonymy:
1.	the names of containers are used to denote things contained: the kettle is boiling; have another  late (glass);
2.	the names of the things contained are used instead of the containers:
school - for school-building; institute - for institute-building; university;
3.	the names of places are used to denote what is going on in these places or people who are there: the whole chair was present; the whole city came to meet the hero; street; town; village;
4.	the name of the material may be used instead of the product: brass - латунь, духовые инструменты, mahogany - красное дерево, мебель, iron - железо, утюг, silver - серебро, приборы (столовые), flax - лен, изделие из льна, nickel, glass;
5.	the name of the author is used for his works: give me Byron, please;
6.	the name of a passion is used for its object: My love.
Proper names are widely used metonymically; e.g. the names of the inventors are used instead of what they have invented: makintosh - a waterproof overcoat after Makintosh (1766-1843), Farenheit (прусский ученый, 1736 г.),
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mauser - род оружия, Sandwich - имя лорда, Whatman - имя фабриканта, Sepp - имя конструктора, сконструировавшего дирижабль, Colt - имя конструктора, сконструировавшего револьвер, Pullman (1831-1897) - имя конструктора, создавшего определенный тип вагона пассажирского поезда.
 Geographical names are used metonymically:
1.	the names of countries are used to denote products manufactured there: china - porcelain; holland - a linen fabric; marocco - сафьян, bengal – сорт материала из Бенгалии;
2.	names of cities and towns: rocquefort (деревня во Франции) - сыр, magnesia (древний город в Малой Азии) - лекарство, Bordeaux (город во Франции) - красное вино, havana - гаванские сигары, tangerine (город в Северной Африке) - мандарин, tokay (город в Венгрии) - вино токай, pambroke (город в Англии) - стол с двумя опускающимися сторонами;
3.	names of islands: canary - l)light sweet wine, 2)a song bird found   there; sardine - a small fish found in the Mediterranean Sea about the island   of Sardinia;
4.	names of mountains: cheviot - шевиот (ткань).
In all the above-mentioned cases the elements of contiguity are evident enough. All these cases of transference of meaning are called linguistic metonymy.
Both the processes, metaphor and metonymy, are closely connected, being different stages of the same semantic process, the result of the use of a word in different situations.
Results of Change of Meaning
Results of semantic change can be generally seen in the changes of the denotational meaning of the word - restriction and extention of meaning, or in the change of its connotational component - amelioration and deterioration of meaning - elevation and degradation of meaning. Restriction takes place more often than extention.
Changes in the denotational meaning may result in the narrowing or extention of meaning, i.e., a -word of wide meaning gets a narrower sense in which it denotes only some of the objects which it had previously denoted, or a word of narrow meaning becomes the one with extended meanings. The examples of narrowing of meanings: the word hound (OE hund) was used to denote a dog of any breed, but now it denotes only a dog used in the chase -гончая.
Mod E deer - a particular kind of beast - олень, OE - wild beast;
Mod E meat - eatable flesh (мясо), OE - food;
Mod E to teach - OE to show;
Mod E to write - OE to scratch.
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Terms of wide sense may narrow in meaning in a concrete situation. Thus, the River is to a Londoner the Thames; the Abbey stands for Westminster Abbey; the Tower - a museum now; the City - the business part of London; Oxford - the university, etc. One of the commonest ways of narrowing of meaning is to add a qualifying word: corn (grain) - Indian corn (maize) - кукуруза, engine - steam engine.
Extension of meaning means extension of the word-range, that is to say the change of specific to general, e.g., the following words underwent several changes:
pipe: 1. originally - a simple musical instrument made of wood; 2. of any other material; 3. other things resembling this musical instrument in shape; 4. a general name for a hollow cylindrical body;
box: l.a container for solid objects or substances, drugs and money; 2. other things bearing a close resemblance in form and use; 3. a chest for holding clothes; 4. a box in a stable, in a theatre, a signalman's box;
target: 1. a small round shield; 2. now - anything that is fired at and figuratively any result aimed at;
camp (Latin - campus): 1. the place where troops are lodged in tents; 2. temporary quarters of travellers, nomads.
Extension of meaning is often due to contiguity or similarity. Thus, very often proper names become common nouns: mackintosh, sandwich, colt, etc.
In all the above-mentioned cases the denotational meaning was changed. But there are cases of changes in the connotational component. The changes in the connotational meaning may be subdivided into two main groups:
-	degradation of meaning;
-	elevation of meaning.
Degradation of meaning involves a lowering in social scale, reflection of the contempt of the upper classes towards the lower ones, e.g.:
wench 1. дочь, сирота, 2. крестьянская девушка, 3. грубая девка;
knave (German knabe): 1. a boy, 2. a servant, 3. any low person; 4. a term of contempt in general referring to any person, a scoundrel - негодяй, подлец;
hoor: 1. a villager - крестьянин, 2. clumsy or ill-bread fellow - грубиян, грубый человек;
villain: 1. a villager, a peasant - крестьянин, 2. a term of scorn - презрение, 3. a scoundrel, a ruffian - хулиган, буян, головорез, злодей, негодяй;
blackguard: I. a servant who was in guard of kitchen things black with soot, 2. a scoundrel, due to the contempt of masters for the servants - подлец, бездельник.
Sometimes a word is neutral in meaning but its derivative has a derogatory, degraded meaning: design - замышлять, designing - коварный, лука-
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вый, art - artful (cunning), scheme - scheming (intriguing), mood - moody (out of humour) - унылый.
Elevation of meaning is a semantic shift undergone by words due to their referents coming up the social scale, e.g.:
steward- an attendant on ships and airlines but originally - a person who took care of pigs (stigo - a sty, weard - ward);
minister - a civil servant of higher rank, originally - a servant, an attendant, then a priest;
marshal - a high military rank, originally - a horse-servant;
queen — originally a woman;
knight - originally a young servant, now a man who receives a title of honour;
nice - originally foolish, now - тонкий, умелый, отличный;
fame - слава; originally a report, common talk, rumour.
The causes, nature and result of semantic changes should be viewed as three essentially different but inseparable aspects of one and the same linguistic phenomenon, as any change of meaning may be investigated from the point of view of its cause, nature and its consequences. Essentially the same causes may bring about different results, e.g., the semantic development in the word knight (OE cniht) from «a boy servant» to «a young warrior» and eventually to the meaning it possesses in Modern English due to extralinguistic causes just as the semantic change in the word boor, but the results are different. In the case of boor we observe pejorative development while in the case of blight we observe elevation of the connotational component.
AMBIGUITY OF MEANING
1.	Grammatical and lexical  ambiguity
2.	Monosemantic and polysemantic words.
3.	Primary and secondary meanings.
4.	Basic and minor meanings.
. Grammatical and  Lexical  Ambiguity
Ambiguity
A word is ambiguous if it has more than one sense or more than two synonyms that are not synonyms to each other. A sentence is ambiguous if it has two or more paraphrases which are not synonymous to each other. E.g. club - 1. Institution, group of people. 2. Thick stick made out of wood. These
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are two distinct senses and they are not synonymous to each other. There is ambiguity at a word level and ambiguity at a sentence level. Other examples of word level ambiguity are: bat, bear, level etc. these have at least two different      I meanings.
Structure of grammatical ambiguity
There are several definitions about the structure of grammatical ambiguity. If a sentence has even one ambiguous word it has to be ambiguous or vice-versa. If a sentence hasn't got an ambiguous word then it is not ambiguous. E.g. A kind young man helped me to cross the street; kind could be a type of something or nice. While cross one can also be angry with somebody or mad at somebody. There are two ambiguous words in this sentence-Агшй? and cross which are homonyms (the same form but different meaning) but in this context they are very explicit in the meaning.
E.g. I observed John in the garden.
This sentence hasn't got ambiguous words but is itself ambiguous. It can be either: / was in the garden observing John or John was in the garden and I observed him. Another definition of ambiguity is that all the sentences that contain an ambiguous word are ambiguous. Some sentences that contain an ambiguous word may be ambiguous or not. The right definition of ambiguity is: some sentences that contain ambiguous words are ambiguous and some are not. Some sentences which do not contain an ambiguous word are ambiguous and some are not. The sentences that contain no ambiguous words and are still ambiguous are called structural grammatical ambiguity. E.g. Visiting relatives can be a nuisance where visiting can either be relatives that visit or to visit relatives.
Ambiguity at a syntactic level.
e.g. I saw her duck -I.I saw a duck belonging to her (as a noun). 2.1 saw her lower her head (as a verb).
Referential Versatility
There are some words that derive their meaning from the context and have no meaning of their own if isolated. E.g. here, there, how or then, I, you, me, etc. They should not be mixed with ambiguity.
Lexical ambiguity normally comprises both homonymy and polysemy. 36

Homonymy means different lexical meaning with the same form. It is a sense relation that occurs with items which share the form (have the same form) but have different sense (meaning) that are not related to each other, they are totally different and distinct in meaning.
Polysemy is a lexical phenomenon where two lexemes have the same form and different but related sense. They have something in common, e.g.:
iron 1. Metal. 2. Instrument made out of metal.
fork 1. Instrument for eating 2. A rode that branches in two paths resem-    bling a fork; 
but: pupil 1. A young student 2. Part of the eye.
The first two examples were examples of polysemy while the third one is an example of homonymy. The meanings of the third one are different and unrelated but have common origin and during the time they drifted apart in meaning. Therefore a word should be defined synchronically because one can never be sure of the etymology of the word, e.g. mouth 1. Part of a face 2. Part of a river where it touches the sea.
The Origin of Homonymy
89 % of the homonyms are monosyllabic lexemes, the origin of which is due to the monosyllabic analytic nature of English vocabulary (short words developed different meaning).
There are two main sources of homonymy:
1.	Convergent nature of the homonymy where two words that have the
same form, e.g. OE gesund - healthy - sound (safe and sound).
OE sund - swimming - sound (straits)
Lat. Sonus - sound (sense detected by the ears).
This shows that three distinct forms ended up in one form.
2.	Divergent nature of  homonvmy occurs when the words have one
common etymological source but during the course of time their meaning split
or diverged. E.g.; pupil - a young student,.pupil - part of the eye. What hap
pened with this word is that the forms survived but there was semantic disinte
gration.
Patterned Homonymy
Lexical items that are the same in form share the same elements of meaning but belong to different speech class and they  are patterned hornonyms. Usually
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they have different grammatical categories, e.g. act could be a noun or a verb. In the sentence “I think that this could be good” that is a conjunction while in “That man over there” that is a demonstrative.

Partial homonyms
These are items with a different meaning but in one of their word forms they share the form and can be homonyms. E.g. axis (singular) - axes (plural); axe (s) - axes (p). These two function as homonyms only in their plural form. E.g. but (conj.), butt - end of a cigarette. Used as verbs these two can be in sentences such as : Don't but me or He butted me all the time and He butted his cigarettes fended them/ The last two examples are partial homonyms.
Homophony
Homophons as a case of homonymy, i.e. different forms have different meaning and are pronounced identically. E.g. buy, by and bye; night - knight or you to -you too.
Homography
Homographs have the same spelling but different pronunciation, e.g. tear (n) - tear (v); lead (n) - lead (v).

Monosemantic and Polysemantic Words
In the course of historic development of the English language words have undergone many changes. When we analyse the semantic structure of the words we notice that they are not units of a single meaning.
Monosemantic words, i.e. words having only one meaning, are comparatively few in number; they are mainly scientific terms such as molecule, hydrogen and the like.
Most words convey several notions and thus have several meanings; they are called polysemantic words. A well-developed polysemy is a great advantage in a language.
Semantic Structure of a Word
The system of meaning of a word is called its semantic structure, and not only due to the sum of meaning: each separate meaning is subject to further subdivision and possesses an inner structure of its own.
Therefore, the semantic structure of a word should be investigated at both these levels:
1.	of different meanings;
2.	of semantic components within each separate meaning.
Let us treat the semantic structure of the polysemantic word fire on the first level:
flame - огонь
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1)	fire - пожар (a forest fire),
2)	burning material in a stove - огонь, жар (a fire in the room),
3)	орудийный огонь, стрельба (to open fire),
4)	огонь, жар, страсть, энтузиазм (a speech lacking fire).
Meaning 1 holds a kind of dominance over other meanings conveying it in the most general way. Meanings 2-5, 2-4 in the words given below are associated with special circumstances, aspects and instances of the same phenomenon:
table: 1) плита, 2) стол, З) пища, стол, 4) таблица, 5) застолье;
bridge: 1) мост, мостик, 2) капитанский мостик, 3) переносица, 4) мост (для зубов).
Each separate meaning may be represented as a set of semantic components (semes). In terms of componental analysis the meaning of a word represents a set of elements of meaning which are rather theoretical elements.
Polysemy can be approached to diachronically and synchronically. By diachronic approach we see the change in the semantic structure of the word; the word may keep its previous meaning or meanings and at the same time it gets one or several new ones.
Then the problem or interrelation and interdependence of different meanings of a polysemantic word may be roughly formulated as follows: did the word always have all the meanings, or did some of them appear earlier than the others? Are the new meanings dependent on the meanings already existing? What is the nature of this dependence?
Primary and Secondary Meanings
By diachronic approach we distinguish the primary meaning: table - a flat slab of stone and wood (плита), and secondary meanings (all the other meanings): стол, пища, таблица - as they are derived from the primary meaning of the word and appeared later than the primary meaning.
The terms «secondary» (вторичное) and «derived» (производное) meanings are to a certain extent synonymous. The term «secondary» denotes (implies) that this meaning appeared after the primary meaning.
When we refer to the meaning «derived» we do not only stress the fact that the meaning appeared after the primary one, but also that it is dependent on the primary meaning and somehow subordinate to it. E.g. in the case of the word table we may say that the meaning «food put on the table» is derived from the meaning «a piece of furniture on which meals are laid». As this particular meaning is derived through metonymic shift (change), we can also describe it as secondary and metonymic.
It follows that the main source of polysemy is a change in the semantic structure of the word.
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Basic and Minor Meanings
Synchronically we understand polysemy as the coexistence of different meanings of the same word at a certain historical period of the development of the English language. Here the problems are as follows: are all the meanings equal in the semantic structure of this word? Is the order in which the meanings are enumerated in dictionaries arbitrary, or does it reflect the comparative value of individual meanings?
By synchronic approach we must distinguish the basic (the central) meaning of the word and the minor meanings. The basic meaning of the word is representative of the word in isolation, while the minor meanings are observed only in certain contexts, e.g.: table - «a piece of furniture» (central meaning). All the other meanings are minor.
A proper objective criterion of the comparative value of individual meanings is the frequency of their occurence in speech, which may be different:
table 1) стол (52% of all the uses of the word);
2)	таблица (35% of all the uses of the word);
3)	all the other meanings (13%).
Of great importance is the stylistic stratification of meanings of a polysemantic word because not only words but individual meanings too may differ in their stylistic reference, e.g., there is nothing colloquial in the word yellow in the meaning «a certain colour», but when yellow is used in the meaning of «sensational», it is both slang and American.
The semantic structure of words is never static, and the relationship between the diachronic and synchronic evaluation of individual meanings may be different in different periods of the historical development of language.
Thus, the primary meaning of the word may become synchronically one of the minor meanings, and diachronically a secondary meaning may function as the central meaning of the word, e.g., revolution in 1600 in the meaning «revolving motion» (восстание) was both primary (diachronically) and central (synchronically), while the meaning «a complete overthrow of the established government» (свержение) and other meanings were minor ones. In Modern English the meaning «revolving motion» is primary diachronically, but it is no longer synchronically central, as the arrangement of meanings in the semantic structure of the word «revolution» has greatly changed, and the most frequent meaning is «a complete overthrow of the established government or regime».
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SYNONYMS
1.	The definition of synonyms.
2.	The synonymic dominant.
3.	Classification of synonyms.
4.	Types of connotations.
5.	Sources of synonymy.
The Definition of Synonyms
Synonymy is one of the most difficult and controversial problems, and the most controversial point is the problem of criteria of synonymy and the definition of synonyms.
Traditional linguistics solved the problem with the notional criterion and defined synonyms as words of the same part of speech conveying the same notion but differing either in shades of meaning or in stylistic characteristics.
Some aspects of this definition have been criticised. It has been pointed out that linguistic phenomena should be defined in linguistic terms and the term «notion» makes this an extralinguistic definition.
In contemporary linguistics the semantic criterion of synonymy is frequently used. In terms of componental analysis synonyms may be defined as words with the same or nearly the same denotation (or the denotative components) but differing in connotations (in emotive charge or in stylistic characteristics).
to begin - to start - to commence (stylistic reference),
to put - to place - to lay - to set - to deposite (shades of meaning),
to tremble - to shiver - to shudder (shades of meaning),
to like - to admire - to love (emotive charge).
The verbs to like - to admire - to love describe feelings of attraction, fondness, but each of them describes it in its own way:
to like - certain warm feeling;
to admire - a stronger emotive charge;
to love - the strongest feeling.
denotation	connotations
to like - to like (warm feeling)
to admire -  to like (warmer feeling)
to love - to like (the strongest possible emotion)
to stare -  to look (lastingly, in surprise, curiosity)
to gaze -  to look (lastingly, in admiration, wonder)
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to glare -  to look (lastingly, in anger, fury)
to glance  - to look (briefly, in passing)
to peep - to look (lastingly, stealingly through an  opening or from
a concealed location)
to peer - to look (lastingly, with difficulty or strain)
The common denotation convincingly shows that according to the semantic criterion, these words are synonyms. The connotative components are different.
to look
to glance - to look quickly, suddenly,
to glimpse - to look still quicker,  to have a momentary  look.
In great number of cases the semantic difference between two or more synonyms is supported by the difference in their valency, syntactical or lexical. Valency denotes the combining power or typical co-occurrence of a linguistic element.
to tremble - to shiver from cold, to shudder from disgust;
high tree - tall man;
beautiful woman - handsome man;
to answer a question - to reply to a question;
to say something to somebody - to tell somebody;
to finish school - to graduate from university;
to offer a concrete thing - to suggest an idea: going; that he  go. 

The Synonymic Dominant
Each synonymic group has a dominant element. The synonymic dominant is the most general term potentially containing the specific features rendered by all other members of the group.
to look - to stare - to gaze - to glance - to peep;
to leave - to depart - to retire - to clear out;
to ask - to inquire - to question - to interrogate.
The synonymic dominant is characterized by the following features:
-	high frequency of usage;
-	broad combinability, i.e. ability to be used in combinations with various
classes of words;
-	broad general meaning;
-	lack of connotations.
The synonymic dominant should not be confused with a generic term. It is relative and serves as the name for the notion of the genus as dintinguished from the names of the kinds, e.g.: the -word furniture is a generic term for a table, a chair, a stool, a bookcase, a wardrobe, etc.
Classification of Synonyms
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Acad. V.V. Vinogradov established the following classification of synonyms: ideographic, stylistic, ideographic-stylistic, contextual, absolute (total).
Ideographic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but differing in shades of meaning or emotions expressed: a piece - a lump - a slice; to tremble - to shiver - to shudder; anger - fury; to like - to admire - to love.
Stylistic synonyms are words conveying the same notion but different in stylistic characteristics:
to begin - to start - to commence;
sky - heaven (poetic);
to see - to behold (archaic);
horse - steed (poetic);
to try - to endeavour (bookish).
Stylistic colouring may also be accompanied by a difference in emotional colouring or some other shades of meaning:
to say - to pronounce;
head - onion;
money - cabbage;
face - puss.
Such synonyms are called ideographic-stylistic.
Contextual synonyms are similar in meaning only under some specific distributional conditions. Thus, the words bear, stand, suffer are synonyms only when used in the negative form: can't stand it - can't suffer it - can't bear it. Otherwise, all these verbs are semantically different.
Absolute (total) synonyms are words coinciding in all their shades of meaning and in all their stylistic characteristics. Absolute synonyms are usually technical and scientific terms, they are rare in the vocabulary and temporary. The vocabulary system tends to reject one of the absolute synonyms or to develop differentiation of characteristics in one or both (or all) of them: noun -substantive; flection - ending; oculist - eye-specialist.
Types of Connotations
A more modern and effective approach to the classification of synonyms may be based on the definition describing synonyms as words differing in connotations:
-	connotation of degree or intensity:
to surprise - to astonish - to amaze;
to shout - to yell - to bellow - to roar;
to like - to admire - to love - to adore - to worship;
-	connotation of duration of the action:
to stare - to glare - to gaze - to glance - to peep - to peer; to say (brief) - to speak - to talk (lasting);
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to shudder ( brief) - to shiver (lasting);
-	emotive connotations:
to stare (surprise) - to glare (anger, fury) - to gaze (admiration, tenderness);
to tremble - to shudder (with horror, disgust);
alone - lonely (feeling of melancholy);
to sparkle (with positive emotions) - to glitter (with negative emotions);
-	the evaluative connotation (labelling something as good or bad):
well-known - famous - notorius (negative connotation) - celebrated
(positive one);
-	the causative connotation:
to sparkle (with positive emotions, e.g., happiness, high spirit, etc.) - to glitter (with negative emotions - anger, rage, hatred);
to tremble - to shiver (from cold) - to shudder (from disgust, fear, horror);
to blush (from modesty, shame, embarassment) - to redden (from anger, indignation);
-	the connotation of manner  of  the action:
to run - to dash (to run very quickly);
to stroll (прогуливаться) - to stride (идти широким шагом) - to trot (бежать рысью) - to pace (ходить взад и вперед, шагать) - to stagger (идти шатаясь) - to stumble (идти, запинаясь о неровности) - to shamble (идти, тяжело волоча ноги);
-	the connotation of attendant circumstances:
to peep (look stealingly through a hole, crack or opening, from behind a newspaper, a fan or a curtain) - to peer (in darkness, through the fog, dimmed glasses or windows, from a great distance);
-	the connotation of attendant features:
handsome (a tall stature, fine proportions) - beautiful (usually - classical features and a perfect figure) - pretty (small delicate features);
-	stylistic connotations:
girl - lass (dial.) - girlie (coll.) - maiden (poetic) - clamsel (arch.) - bird (slang); to be off, to clear out (coll.) - to take the air (slang) - to depart, to retire, to withdraw (formal).
Synonyms are one of the language's most important expressive means. They are the basis of language culture. To speak correctly and well one must know a lot of synonyms and differences between them.
To define the character of the synonymic relations between the words it is necessary to analyse all the meanings and occurrences of the words. It can be done with the help of contextual, componental and contrastive analyses.
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Sources of Synonymy	„, 0
Wide synonymity in English is due to a great number of borrowings^
Quite a number of words in a synonymic set are usually of Latin or French
origin.
fair (native) - beautiful (Fr.)
begin (native) - commence (Fr.) - initiate (L.).
EUPHEMISMS
1.	Superstitious taboos.
2.	Social taboos.
Superstitious Taboos
A special source of synonymy is the so-called euphemism (eu - well, phemi -1 speak).
Euphemism is a way of speaking by which an unpleasant, improper _or offensive thing is designated by an indirect and milder term.
The roots of euphemisms lie in religious taboos which dictated the avoidance of certain terms, such as words connected with death, sacred beings, devil, etc. Such euphemisms are called superstitious taboos.
Superstitious taboos have their roots in the distant past of mankind when people believed that there was a supernatural link between a name and the object or creature it represented. Therefore, all the words denoting evil spirits, dangerous animals, or the powers of nature were taboo. If uttered, it was believed that unspeakable disasters would result not only for the speaker but also for those near him.
That is why all creatures, objects and phenomena threatening danger were referred to in a round-about descriptive way. So, a dangerous animal might be described as the one-lurking-in-the-wood, a mortal disease - the black death.
The Christian religion also makes certain words taboo. The fear of calling the devil by name (proverb «Speak of the devil and he will come») was inherited from ancient superstitious beliefs. So, the word devil became taboo, and a number of euphemisms began to substitute it: the Prince of Darkness, the black one, dickens (coll.), (Old) Nick (coll.).
Since the 16th century, when the use of the words god, Jesus and the Trinity was forbidden in profane language many synonymic substitutes to designate these ideas were developed, e.g. instead of god - cock, cot, gog, gosh, goodness, goodness gracious, Lord, the Maker, Good, by Heavens.
Even in modern times most people are reluctant to use the verb to die. It has the following euphemisms: to pass away, to be taken, to breathe one's last,
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to depart this life, to close one's eyes, to go the way of all flesh, to go West (si.), to kick off (si.), to kick the bucket (si.), to join the majority, to go to another world.
In the insurance companies people write: «If anything should happen to me...» (if I should die).
Instead of dead it is common to say: the departed, the deceased, the late Mr. Smith, etc.
Social Taboos
Euphemism is a frequent occurrence in Modem English, it is a wider phenomenon than a taboo was, and it has spread to many spheres of life. Such euphemisms can be called social taboos.
The word lavatory has produced a great number of euphemisms: powder room, washroom, restroom, retiring room, comfort station, ladies' room, gentlemen's room, water-closet, W.C., Windsor Castle (comical phrase for deciphering), this is it! (coll.), to spend a penny, to wash one's hands; where is what do you call it?
Pregnancy is another topic for «delicate» references: to have a belly, she eaten beans, (big) with child, with a baby coming, in an interesting condition, in a delicate condition, in the family way.
The word trousers not so long ago, had a great number of euphemisms: unmentionables, unwhisperables, indescribables, inexpressibles, sit-upons, etc.
The adjective drunk is often substituted by: merry, fresh, overcome, full (coll.); drunk as a Lord (coll.), drunk as an owl (coll.), soaked (si.), half-seas-over (si.), high as a kite (si.), tight (si.), intoxicated (formal), under the influence (form.).
Euphemisms may be used due to concern not to hurt someone's feelings, e.g., a liar can be described as a person who does not always strictly tell the truth, untruthful; a stupid man - not exactly brilliant, unwise; dirty - untidy, unclear; slattern - inaccurate, etc.; naked- in one's birthday shirt; overeating -indigestion; sweat - perspiration.
Mental diseases also cause wide use of euphemisms: a mad person may be described as insane, mentally unstable, mentally deficient (m.d.), unbalanced, not quite right (coll.), not all there (coll.), off one's head (coll.), wrong in the upper storey (coll.), cuckoo (si.), loony (si.), etc.
A clinic for such patients can be referred to as asylum, sanitarium, sanatorium (mental) institution, and less discreetly (осторожно) - a nut house (si.), loony bin (si.), etc.
As we see by the above-mentioned examples, the main types of euphemisms are:
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-	learned or scientific terms (which are less familiar and less offensive),
e.g. indigestion;
-	words with the negative prefixes un-, in-: unwise, untidy;
-	phraseological units: to kick the bucket; in one's birthday shirt ;
-	slang, colloquial words and phrases;
-	abbreviations: m.d., T.B., W.C.
So, originally closely connected with religion euphemisms have been extended to words denoting different diseases, criminal activities or anything which is considered improper in a given society. They have become a social phenomenon of wide semantic range.
Special euphemistic language penetrates literally into all spheres of life. In the USA euphemisms are especially widely used in the language of advertisements, slang and professional jargon. Some examples:
pawnshops (ломбардные лавки) are called in the USA advertisements loan and jewelry companies (компании ювелирных изделий и по представлению займов);
used cars (second-hand cars) - pre-owned cars (ранее находившиеся во владении);
fall (спад) - easing (затишье в деловых операциях).
То avoid words revealing bad state of economy instead of chronic inflation gradual increase in prices and wages (постепенный рост цен и зарплаты) is used; the poor - the neediest (очень нуждающиеся), the needy (нуждающиеся), the ill-provided (плохо обеспеченные), the deprived (лишенные благ), the underpriviledged (мало привилегированные), the disadvantaged (попавшие в менее благоприятные жизненные обстоятельства), low-income people (малообеспеченные).
Euphemisms are of great interest in the sphere of classifying professions. Very unusual words are often used:
garbage collector (уборщик мусора) - sanitation engineer (инженер по вопросам санитарии);
rat-catcher (человек, устанавливающий ловушки для крыс) -extermination engineer (специалист по истреблению грызунов);
dog-catcher (ловец бродячих собак) - animal welfare officer (сотрудник по вопросам охраны животных);
stool pigeon (доносчик) - police informant (полицейский информатор).
In class struggle people do the following:
sit-down strike - work ceasation on premises (прекращение работы в помещении);
to exploit - to use without reward (пользоваться чьими-либо услугами без вознаграждения).
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So we see that euphemisms are a very complex and contradictory phenomenon. In some cases euphemisms are just to the point. So, in fiction usage of euphemisms is an effective stylistic means for writers, and they do it to depict their characters. In medicine, in the language of diplomacy euphemisms are also appropriate. In general, euphemism has become a wide social phenomenon.
ANTONYMS
1.	The definition of antonymy.
2.	Types of antonymy.
3.	Kinds of antonyms.
The Definition of Antonymy
Antonymy is a lexical opposition of meaning. The words are different in form and opposite in meaning. It is also a relative phenomenon (same lexical field identical in style) and it has contradictory meaning. Antonyms are a couple of words that belong to the same part of speech, share the same lexical field, similar in many respects and share all the features but one that meaning. E.g. big and red are not antonyms because they don't share the same lexical field, but tall and short belong to the same lexical field, share most of the features and differ in one dimension. Antonymy is used in lexicology as a process that defines the meaning of the word by maintaining its opposite counterpart.
Markedness is a category that operates with pairs of words which are antonyms but not lexically specified. It is definite for roots of words where there is some oppositeness. It means two members, one marked and the other unmarked. E.g. play (unmarked) - played (marked); married - unmarried. Antonymy means the positive and the negative members of a pair, e.g. old -young; beautiful — ugly; wide — narrow; How old are you?; How beautiful is she? How wide is the room? The positive members are conceptualised first and than find their antonyms. This is primary lexicalisation of the positive member of the pair. Markedness also operates in the field of derivational morphology, e.g. boy - boyhood.
Relativity of Antonymy
Small elephants are big animals. Small and big is antonymy and elephants and animals hyponymy. The antonyms are always compared in terms of a given standard; in the given example there is no absoluteness. E.g. small is bigger than big in this case.
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Types of Antonymy
Complementary (contradictory/binary) antonymy. Complementary antonyms come in pairs that exhaust all the possibilities within a mixed lexical filed. One denies the other and together they make a whole. E.g. husband -wife', married — single', dead— alive.
Gradation
Also operates with two members of a pair but they can be graded and compared. There is an application of the grammatical comparison in: richer -richest - very rich; hot - cold are two extremes that include several middle members such as: warm, lukewarm, slightly warm, a bit hot, hotter etc. in between the two extremes there are a couple of other lexemes. So if one is not beautiful she or he is not necessarily ugly. The denial of the one is not necessarily affirmation of the other.
Converse (relational) antonymy.
This can be defined as a sort of symmetrical antonymy. It involves a third member besides the pair. E.g. give - take - when you take something there has to be someone to give it to you. Therefore there is something and someone,e.g. John gave the book to Mary. This sentence implies that Mary has taken the book.
Multiple incompatibility
This kind of antonymy involves more than three members. It does not operate in pairs but with multiple number of members. It is relation of opposite-ness that should be established between more than three members. E.g. north -south - east - west. In cards - hearts - diamonds - clubs - spades. Here you can not establish mono-relational opposition. The opposition functions within all the members. For example in the days of the week, months, colours, planets etc. One member in the system enters in relation of opposition with any other member of the system. The denial of one means affirmation of all the other members. Denial of the colour of red is affirmation of all the other colours and vice versa. Whenever there is a small lexical system with more than three elements there is multiple incompatibility.
Kinds of Antonyms
Absolute/root vs. Derivational antonyms..Absolute (root) antonyms such as: hot - cold, short - long are lexically words. The derivational antonyms are
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formed by adding negative prefixes such as: anti-freeze; in-complete; un-fair and the suffix -less: senseless. The derivational antonymy is achieved by adding negative prefixes.
Semantic antonymy. There are two derivational antonyms of the root predicate - happy - unhappy. Not happy is a syntactic antonymy but semanti-cally it does not necessarily imply unhappiness. Unhappy is stronger in meaning than not happy. The syntactic antonymy is achieved by adding the negative particle not.
Phrasal antonymy. This involves words in phrases, e.g. by accident - on purpose.
Polysemy and antonvmy. In some sense  antonymy can easily be established but in other it can be difficult to establish. E.g. tall - short; but firm can be soft or loose depending on the sense.
Metaphorical antonymy. E.g. hot news - cold news: the first one means very interesting, this term is so frequently used by reporters that it resulted in the appearance of its antonym as an ordinary word. It is a metaphor in the appearance of an antonym which is an ordinary word. The meaning is transferred and we cannot establish its antonym.
NEOLOGISMS AND ARCHAISMS
1.	The definition of neologism.
2.	Kinds of neologisms.
3.	Ways of word-forming of neologisms.
4.	Archaisms.
The Definition of Neologism
The vocabulary does not remain the same, but changes constantly. New notions come into being, requiring new words to name them. On the other hand, some notions and things become outdated and the words that denote them drop out of the language. Sometimes a new name is introduced for a thing or notion that continues to exist, and the older name ceases to be used. The number of words in a language is therefore not constant.
New words and expressions, or neologisms, are created for new things irrespective of their scale of importance. They may be very important, e.g. People 's Republic, nuclear war, or quite insignificant and short-lived, e.g. pony-tail (a hair-do), jitterbag (one who loves to dance to jazz-music), jitter (conversion) - a nervous man. Whenever a neologism appears
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1.	either an old word is appropriately changed in meaning, or
2.	new words are borrowed, or
3.	more other words are coined out of the existing language material ac
cording to the patterns and ways productive in the language at a given stage of
its development.
Thus, a neologism is any word or word-equivalent formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.
The intense development of science and industry introduced an immense number of new words and changed the meanings of old ones: computer, nuclear fission - расщепление, feedback - обратная связь (радио), penicillin, tape-recorder, supermarket, sputnik, lunokhod, cosmic-ship, cosmodrome, etc.
There are many problems concerning neologisms: first of all the term «neologism» itself. The dictionary gives the explanation of a neologism as a new word or a new meaning of some word existing in the language. Hence there appear the problems: during what period of time is this new word or the new meaning of the word considered to be a neologism? Are the words, e.g. docking, cosmic flight, etc. registered in the dictionary neologisms or already not neologisms? Some scientists consider new words, which are already registered by the dictionaries, not to be neologisms. Then a new question arises: does it mean that neologisms are the words of oral speech?
Kinds of Neologisms
The intense development of science and industry, changes in economy, social and political life introduced a great number of new words, denoting new notions in these fields. Prof. I.R.Galperin called such neologisms terminological neologisms; they differ from the neologisms having a great emotional-stylistic colouring. They are called by I.R. Galperin stylistic neologisms. Both types of neologisms have different stylistic functions and are used with different aims.
Terminological neologisms referring to the bookish vocabulary, as a rule, in the course of time become part of the language system and they become an important source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the language. Gradually they penetrate into the common literary colloquial vocabulary and become widely used by the majority of the people. Here we can mention, e.g., neologisms connected with space researches. The people have a great interest in this problem. Besides, radio, TV, press play a great role in it. Here are some neologisms of this sphere: space, docking, cosmonaut, cosmic food, carrier-rocket, cosmonaut, cosmic-ship, orbital laboratory, manned rocket, etc.
Many new words and word-phrases, referring to science and technic, are formed in English as well as in other languages from the Latin and Greek root-
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morphemes available in the language, and they are international words, e.g.: isotope, isotron, cyclotron, supersonic plane.
As it was said, some neologisms are created to express greater emotional and stylistic shades of the existing notions, when it is necessary a) to underline some extra features of the phenomenon, or b) to express one's attitude to the facts of reality, and the old words are not precise and expressive enough, e.g.: космоплавание, троирование.
When the first Soviet sputniks were launched, the Russian suffix -uk appeared in English, in the words denoting rockets, with one which failed to launch, e.g.: kaputnik, flopnik, stay-putnik. Later on this suffix appeared in occasionalisms, e.g.: knowhownik - специалист, умелец, nofoodnik, re-fusenik (человек, которому отказали в получении визы).
Neologisms of this type (the main function of which is to show some extra features of the phenomenon) are met mainly in press, in newspaper style, i.e. in the style which immediately reflects all the events in the country and the world. Such neologisms often penetrate into other languages as cliche (кальки) either in their national form, or translated. E.g. in English we have from Chinese: a great leap; in German from English - die Teenagers. They are formed for  use at the moment of speech.
In fiction the main function of neologisms is the function of expressing the author's attitude to the facts of reality, that's why the greater part of the writers' neologisms are characterised by a great emotional meaning, the greater part of them do not live long. They are occasionalisms.
Ways of Word-Forming of Neologisms
The bulk of neologisms in English are formed according to the productive models of word-building in the given period and with the help of word-stock of the language. So, the greater part of literary-bookish neologisms are formed with the help of affixation and compounding. Conversion, shortening, changes in the meaning of the words are also used to form neologisms but in a lower degree. They are more often used to form colloquial neologisms.
Formation of neologisms with the help of affixation Here one must mention two important factors: enlarging of the role of prefixation and of the productivity of some prefixes and suffixes which were not such before.
Neologisms formed by prefixation federation - прекращать нормирование (отменить карточную систему); decontaminate - обеззараживать; de-icer - антиобледенитель; de-froster -антиобледенитель; de-requisition - возврат;
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self- вытесняет греческую приставку auto-
self-starter - автоматический завод, самопуск; self-correcting - самокорректирующий; self-propelling - самоходный;
super-
superatomic bomb - водородная бомба; superfilm - супербоевик; supermarket - большой магазин самообслуживания; super-speed camera -сверхскоростная кинокамера; super-radar - радиолокационная станция большой дальности действия;
anti-anti-icer - прибор против обледенения, anti-world, anti-hero, anti-trend, anti-emotion, antieverything, antilorry, antiroad, anticar;
extra-
extra-smart, extra-strong, extra-nuclear (внеядерный).
Neologisms formed by suffixation
Suffixation has always been one of the most productive ways of word-formation. But at present, besides well-known suffixes, new ones began to be widely used though before they were either non-productive or less produc-tive, e.g.:
-ize
villagize, finalize - сделать окончательным;
-ее
doctee - пациент, teachee - ученик, студент; examinee - экзаменуемый; amputee, interrogatee, electee, askee, interviewee, autobiographee.
Practically, with the help of this suffix one can form any «passive» noun, to denote a person who is involved into some action (who undergoes some action, influence);
-ette
featurette - короткометражный фильм обычно низкого качества; kitchenette - кухонька, маленькая кухня с кладовой; leatherette - имитация кожи; launderette - маленькая прачечная самообслуживания.
This suffix has homonyms (a suffix of feminine gender -ette): usherette -билетерша, farmerette - работница на ферме.
The suffix -ess is gradually going out of use; and in Modern English «поэтесса» - a poet, «писательница» - an author, «редактор-женщина» - an editor;
-y (-ie)
bookie - книжонка; clippie - ж/д кондуктор; nappie - легкий сон; goalie - вратарь (ласкат.); choosy - разборчивый; talkie - озвученный фильм;
-dom forms nouns with the meaning of collectivity: gangdom, musicdom;
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-ese forms nouns denoting belonging: Daily Telegraphese, New Yorkese, TVese;
-ish: fortyish, richish.
Compounding
Compounding remains to be productive in forming both terminological and stylistic neologisms. Usually it is a mere combination of free forms: barfly - a frequent visitor of bars; bottom-dollar - последняя копейка; blood-transfusion; a frogman - водолаз; jobhunting; slot-machine; backroom boys (men, engaged in secret research); paperback books - книжки в обложке; aerolift - переброска, доставка по воздуху; wall-flower - a girl who stands near the wall as she is not invited to dance; blood-money - премия, выдаваемая за уничтожение самолета противника; gold-digger - женщина, стремящаяся найти богатого покровителя; baby-sitter, TV baby-sitter; blooddo-nors - слаборазвитые страны, откуда выкачивают все, что можно; ghostwriter - лицо, сочиняющее речи и статьи за видных деятелей.
In compounding of present day it is necessary to mention an interesting phenomenon: such words as double-sealer, four-seater, double-decker, etc. which have been functioning in the language for a long time, have given rise to such neologisms as a five-starrer - a high rank general with five stars; a play-arounder - from «to play around» - флиртовать, заводить интрижки; а breakfast-in-the-bedder - from «breakfast in bed». A complex process takes place here: contraction (стяжение) of the phrase with the addition of a productive suffix.
A peculiarly English and steadily developing type is presented by nouns formed from root-morphemes with post-positives:
fall-out - радиоактивные осадки; dust-up - забастовка мусорщиков; break-down - полный упадок сил; come-back - возврат, возвратившийся; make-up - косметика; let-up - передышка; a set-up - установка; a showdown - решающая схватка; used-ups - использованные материалы; a walk-up - дом без лифта; a high-up - высокопоставленное лицо; walk-ins - амбулаторные больные; a build-up - концентрация войск, усилий и т.п.; а touch-down - приземление; a looker-out - дозорный.
A special group of neologisms are the words with the postpositive in: teach-in - собрание преподавателей и студентов в знак протеста, против политики государства, студенческая конференция или семинар по насущным вопросам; work-in - работа студентов на заводах во время летних каникул; laugh-in - шумное веселье; ride-in - совместная поездка черных и белых в защиту прав; march-in - марш протеста; kneel-in - протест на коленях; slim-in - потеря веса; sit-in - оккупация помещения;
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think-in - размещение, обдумывание; drop-in - собрание молодежи (в кафе); wash-in - стирка в муниципалитете в знак протеста против закрытия прачечных.
        It is a special type of compounding + conversion.
Shortening, e.g.:
ad, adverts - advertisement; coke - coca-cola; telist - telegraphist; co-ed
-	co-education; sput - sputnik; prefab - prefabricated (thing).
Blending is not a very productive type of forming neologisms. The examples are the following:
transeiver - transmitter + receiver; sportcast - sport + broadcast; popcert
-	popular + concert; yarden - yard + garden; musicomedy - musical comedy;
nuke - nuclear attack; Reaganomics - Reagon + economics.
Such words as smog, cinerama, motel, cyclotron, moped (motor assisted pedal cycle) became universally recognized.
Some neologisms are used only in Modern colloquial language, especially in common parlance (просторечии): dopium (dope + opium) - наркотик, дурман; republicrat (republican + democrat); weddiversary (wedding + anniversary).
Conversion
Conversion is widely used to form neologisms, not only simple words, but manysyliable words and even word-combinations: to garage - поставить в гараж, to pinpoint - точно указать местонахождение, to featherbed - оградить от экономических затруднений, to crash-land - разбиться при посадке, to force-land - совершить вынужденную посадку, to belly-land - приземлиться без шасси, a knowhow - технические знания, the under-eighteens - подростки, the over-forties - люди свыше 40, a hand-out - официальное заявление, а must - необходимость, to baby-girl - родить девочку.
Change of meaning, e.g.:
angel - человек, оказывающий материальную поддержку, climate -сложившаяся (политическая) обстановка, coach - натаскивать; umbrella -1. прикрытие самолета; 2. политическая защита; floor - самый низкий уровень цен; to pase the baby - спихнуть какое-либо дело на другого; leftest - левый (в политике); to men - комплектовать людьми; ceiling -максимальная цена; headache - предмет или обстоятельство, раздражающее или причиняющее неприятности.
Borrowings, e.g.:
sputnik, lunnik, lunokhod; glassnost, perestroika; Reichkanzler, Blitzkrieg, Luftwaffe.
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Usually neologisms are short-lived. But if they express very important notions and the people need them for communication, then these words become part of the vocabulary, they enter the dictionaries.
Archaisms
The vocabulary of a language never remains stable. There are constant changes in the semantic structure of any language. Words appear, undergo a number of phonetic and semantic changes and finally pass completely out of use. The disappearance of various things, phenomena, etc. causes either complete disappearance of their names or turns them into «representatives» of a previous epoch.
Many words become obsolete in ordinary language, but remain in poetry, in books conforming to a definite style, in oratory, etc. A great many archaisms survive in English dialects.
The fate of obsolete words may be different. We distinguish two groups of obsolete words: historical terms (historisms) and archaisms proper.
Historisms are names of things and phenomena which passed out of use with the development of social, economical, cultural life of society but which retain historical importance. Unlike archaisms, historical terms have no synonyms in Modern English: they are only names of things and notions which refer to the past of the English people.
The sphere of these words is restricted with scientific literature or with books and novels dealing with certain historical periods. There are lots of historisms in the historical novels of W.Scott and other English authors, e.g.:
1.	words of social position: yeomen - йомен, knight - рыцарь, scribe -
писец;
2.	names of arms and words connected with war: battle ax - боевой то
порик, musket - мушкет, visor - забрало, warrior - воин, sword - меч, hal
berd - алебарда, cross-bow - самострел, coat of mail - кольчуга, gauntlet -
рыцарская перчатка = латная рукавица, archer - стрелок из лука, spear -
копье;
3.	types   of vessels:   galley  -  галера,   frigate  -  фрегат,   caravel  -
каравелла;
4.	types of carts which went out of use: brougham - одноместная
карета, chaise - фаэтон, легкая повозка с открытым верхом, hansom -
двухместный экипаж, где сидение кучера расположено позади и несколь
ко выше мест для седоков, coach - карета (почтовая);
5.	names of old musical instruments: lute - лютня, lyre - лира.
The number of historisms which reflect the social life and culture of the past is very great.
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Archaisms proper are obsolete words denoting real things and phenomena, but the words themselves are no longer found in ordinary English: they were substituted by others, obsolete words becoming their stylistic synonyms.
We distinguish lexical and grammatical archaisms. Grammatical archaisms are forms of words which went out of use with the development of the grammar system of the English language:
-th - suffix of the 3rd person sing., Present Indef. Tense, e.g. hath, doth, speaketh;
-st - 2nd person - dost, hast, speakest;
art - 2nd person of the verb «to be» pl.;
thou, thee, thy, thine - pronouns;
ye - plural, 2nd person.
Lexical archaisms. Poetry is especially rich in archaisms. Words that are too well known and too often used do not call up such vivid images as words less familiar. This is one of the reasons which impel poets to use archaic words. They are «new» just on account of their being old, and yet they are not utterly unknown to be unintelligible. The following are some of the most common lexical archaisms used in poetry:
billow - война; save - кроме; plain - жаловаться; behold - видеть; yon (yonder) - тот; eke - тоже; brow - чело; foe - враг; ere - до; steed - конь; morn - утро; belike - вероятно; damsel - девушка; woe - rope; oft, oft-times - часто; mere - озеро, пруд; hearken - слушать; albeit - хотя, etc.
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PART III. PHRASEOLOGY 
FREE WORD-GROUPS AND PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
1.	Some basic features of word-groups.
2.	Structure of word-groups.
3.	Meaning of word-groups.
4.	Motivation in word-groups.
Some Basic Features of Word-Groups
Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups. One must recall that lexicology deals with words, word-forming morphemes and word-groups.
The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of word-groups may vary. Some word-groups, e.g. at least, point of view, by means, to take place, etc. seem to be functionally and semantically inseparable. They are usually described as set phrases, word-equivalents or phraseological units and are studied by the branch of lexicology which is known as phraseology. In other word-groups such as to take lessons, kind to people, a week ago, the component-members seem to possess greater semantic and structural independence. Word-groups of this type are defined as free word-groups or phrases and are studied in syntax.
Before discussing phraseology it is necessary to outline the features common to various word-groups irrespective of the degree of structural and semantic cohesion of the component-words.
There are two factors which are important in uniting words into word-groups:
-	the lexical valency of words;
-	the grammatical valency of words.
Lexical valency.
Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. E.g. the noun question is often combined with such adjectives as vital, pressing, urgent, delicate, etc. This noun is a component in a number of other word-groups: to raise a question (not to lift), a question of the hour - актуальный вопрос, злободневный вопрос.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency. The range of the lexical valency of words is delimited by the inner structure of the English words. Thus, to raise and to lift are synonyms, but only the former is collocated with the noun question. The verbs to take, to catch, to seize, to grasp are synonyms, but they are found in different collocations:
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to take - exams, measures, precautions, etc.;
to grasp - the truth, the meaning.
Words habitually collocated in speech tend to form a cliche.
The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical, because as it was said before, it depends on the inner structure of the vocabulary of the language. Both the English flower and the Russian цветок may be combined with a number of similar words, e.g. garden flowers, hot house flowers (cf. the Russian - садовые цветы, оранжерейные цветы), but in English flower cannot be combined with the word room, while in Russian we say комнатные цветы (in English we say pot-flowers).
Grammatical valency.
Words are also used in grammatical contexts. The minimal grammatical context in which the words are used to form word-groups is usually described as the pattern of the word-group. E.g., the adjective heavy can be followed by a noun (A+N) - heavy food, heavy storm, heavy box, heavy eater. But we cannot say "heavy cheese " or "heavy to lift, to carry", etc.
The aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactical) structures is termed grammatical valency.
The grammatical valency of words may be different. The grammatical valency is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. E.g., no English adjective can be followed by the finite form of a verb.
Then, the grammatical valency is also delimited by the inner structure of the language. E.g., to suggest, to propose are synonyms. Both can be followed by a noun, but only to propose can be followed by the infinitive of a verb — to propose to do something.
Clever and intelligent have the same grammatical valency, but only clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern A+prep+N - clever at maths.
Structure of Word-Groups
Structurally word-groups can be considered in different ways. Word-groups may be described as for the order and arrangement of the component-members. E.g., the word-group to read a book can be classified as a verbal-nominal group, to look at smb.- as a verbal-prepositional-nominal group, etc.
By the criterion of distribution all word-groups may be divided into two big classes: according to their head-words and according to their syntactical patterns.
Word-groups may be classified according to their head-words into:
nominal groups - red flower;
adjective groups - kind to people;
verbal groups - to speak well.
The head is not necessarily the component that occurs first.
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Word-groups are classified according to their syntactical pattern into predicative and non-predicative groups. Such word-groups as he went, Bob walks that have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence are termed as predicative, all others are non-predicative ones.
Non-predicative word-groups are divided into subordinative and coordi-native depending on the type of syntactic relations between the components. E.g., a red flower, a man of freedom are subordinative non-predicative word-groups, red and freedom being dependent words, while day and night, do and die are coordinative non-predicative word-groups.
Meaning of Word-Groups
The lexical meaning of a word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component members. But it should be pointed out, however, that the term «combined lexical meaning» does not imply that the meaning of the word-group is always a simple additive result of all the lexical meanings of the component words. As a rule, the meanings of the component words are mutually dependent and the meaning of the word-group naturally predominates over the lexical meaning of the components. The interdependence is well seen in word-groups made up of polysemantic words. E.g., in the phrases the blind man, the blind type the word blind has different meanings - unable to see and vague.
So we see that polysemantic words are used in word-groups only in one of their meanings.
Motivation in Word-Groups
Word-groups like words may be also analysed from the point of view of their motivation. Word-groups may be called as lexically motivated if the combined lexical meaning of the group is deducible from the meaning of the components. All free phrases are completely motivated.
It follows from the above discussion that word-groups may be also classified into motivated and non-motivated units. Non-motivated word-groups are habitually described as phraseological units or idioms.
Investigations of English phraseology began not long ago. English and American linguists as a rule are busy collecting different words, word-groups and sentences which are interesting from the point of view of their origin, style, usage or some other features. All these units are habitually described as «idioms», but no attempt has been made to describe these idioms as a separate class of linguistic units or a specific class of word-groups.
In our country research in English phraseology has been constantly carried on for at least 60 years and has some results. The term «phraseological     о С units» to denote a specific group of phrases was introduced by Soviet linguists and is generally accepted in our country.
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Great work in this field has been done by the outstanding Russian linguist A. Shakhmatov in his work «Syntax». This work was continued by Acad. V.V. Vinogradov. Great investigations of English phraseology were done by Prof. A. Cunin, I. Arnold and others.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
1.	Criteria of stability and lack of motivation.
2.	General classification of phraseological units.
3.	Structural classification.
4.	Genetic (etymological) classification.
5.	Proverbs.
Criteria of Stability and Lack of Motivation
Phraseological units are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units; the other essential feature of phraseological units is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure.
Unlike components of free word-groups which may vary according to the needs of communication, member-words of phraseological units are always reproduced as single unchangeable collocations. E.g., in a red flower (a free phrase) the adjective red may be substituted by another adjective denoting colour, and the word-group will retain the meaning: "the flower of a certain colour".
In the phraseological unit red tape (бюрократические методы) no such substitution is possible, as a change of the adjective would cause a complete change in the meaning of the group: it would then mean "я tape of a certain colour". It follows that the phraseological unit red tape is semantically non-motivated, i.e. its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components, and that it exists as a ready-made linguistic unit which does not allow any change of its lexical components and its grammatical structure.
Grammatical structure of phraseological units is to a certain degree also stable:
red tape - a phraseological unit;
red tapes - a free word-group;
to go to bed - a phraseological unit;
to go to the bed - a free word-group.
Still the basic criterion is comparative lack of motivation, or idiomaticity of the phraseological units. Semantic motivation is based on the coexistence of direct and figurative meaning.
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General Classification of Phraseological Units
Taking into consideration mainly the degree of idiomaticity phraseological units may be classified into three big groups. This classification was first suggested by Acad. V. V. Vinogradov. These groups are:
-	phraseological fusions (сращения),
-	phraseological unities (единства),
-	phraseological collocations (словосочетания), or habitual collocations.
Phraseological fusions are completely non-motivated word-groups. The
meaning of the components has no connection at least synchronically with the meaning of the whole group. Idiomaticity is combined with complete stability of the lexical components and the grammatical structure of the fusion,
E.g.:to kick the bucket - умирать,
at sixes and sevens - в беспорядке,
to see the elephant — узнать жизнь,
to go for a song - продать за бесценок,
ball and chain - законная жена,
a mare's nest - вздор,
to talk through one's hat•— говорить вздор,
white elephant - обуза, никчемный предмет.
Phraseological unities are partially non-motivated word-groups as their meaning can usually be understood through (deduced from)the metaphoric meaning of the whole phraseological unit,
e.g.rto skate on thin ice — рисковать,
to wash one's dirty linen in public - выносить сор из избы,
to turn over a new leaf—начать новую жизнь,
to be in smb's shoes - быть на чьем-либо месте,
as busy as a bee - очень занятый,
as cool as a cucumber - хладнокровный,
green light - зеленая улица.
Phraseological unities are usually marked by a comparatively high degree of stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure. Phraseological unities can have homonymous free phrases, used in direct meanings.
E.g.:to skate on thin ice— to skate on thin ice (to risk);
to wash one's hands off dirt - to wash one's hands off (to withdraw from participance);
to play the first role in the theatre - to play the first role (to dominate).
There must be not less than two notional wordsin metaphorical meanings.
Phraseological collocations are partially motivated but they are made up of words having special lexical valency which is marked by a certain degree of stability in such word-groups. In phraseological collocations variability of components is strictly limited. They differ from phraseological unities by the
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fact that one of the components in them is used in its direct meaning, the other - in indirect meaning, and the meaning of the whole group dominates over the meaning of its components. As figurativeness is expressed only in one component of the phrase it is hardly felt.
E.g.:to pay a visit, tribute, attention, respect;
to break a promise, a rule, news, silence;
to meet demands, requirement, necessity;
to set free; to set at liberty;
to make money, journey;
to fall ill.
The structure V + N (дополнение) is the largest group of phraseological collocations.
Structural Classification
Phraseological units may be defined as specific word-groups functioning as word-equivalents; they are equivalent to definite classes of words. The part-of-speech meaning of phraseological units is felt as belonging to the word-group as a whole irrespective of the part-of-speech meaning of component words. Comparing a free word-group, e.g. a long day and a phraseological unit, e.g. in the long run, we observe that in the free word-group the noun day and the adjective long preserve the part-of-speech meaning proper to these words taken in isolation. The whole group is viewed as composed of two independent units (A + N). In the phraseological unit in the long run the part-of-speech meaning belongs to the group as a single whole. In the long run is grammatically equivalent to single adverbs, e.g. finally, firstly, etc.
So we distinguish set-expressions that are nominal phrases, functioning like nouns,
e.g.:Jack-of-all-trades - мастер на все руки,
ways and means - способы, средства,
Baker's dosen - чертова дюжина,
a thorn in the flesh - бельмо на глазу,
skeleton in the cupboard - семейная тайна;	\
verbal phrases, functioning like verbs:
to take the bull by the horn - действовать решительно,
to know the ropes - знать все ходы и выходы,
to flog a dead horse - попусту тратить время,
to put a finger into every pie - соваться во все дела,
to talk through one's hat - пороть чепуху;
adjectival phrases, functioning like adjectives:
spick and span - как с иголочки,
(as)cool as a cucumber - хладнокровный,
(as)poor as a church mouse - очень бедный,
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(as) good as gold - золотой (о ребенке);
adverbial phrases, functioning like adverbs;
in a trice — в мгновение ока,
at sixes and sevens — в беспорядке,
before you can say «Jack Robinson» - мгновенно,
by hook or by crook - не мытьем, так катаньем; любыми средствами;
prepositional and conjunctional phrases:
as long as;
as well as;
in spite of;
as soon as;
interj ectional phrases:
well, I never! – кто бы  мог подумать (ну и ну!),
by George! - (удивление, сожаление),
like hell! - черта с два,
my foot - держи карман шире,
my aunt! - боже мой! Здравствуйте, я ваша тетя!
my eye and Betty Martin! - вот так так!
So, phraseological units are included into the system of parts of speech.
Genetic (Etymological) Classification
Phraseological units are created from free word-groups. But in the course of time some words - constituents of phraseological units may drop out of the language; the situation in which the phraseological unit was formed can be forgotten, motivation can be lost and these phrases become phraseological fusions. The sources of phraseological units are different spheres of life:
sea life:
tell that to the marines — вздор! ври больше!
in deep waters - в беде,
in low waters (сесть на мель) - быть без денег,
to be at sea - быть в недоумении,
to see land  (видеть сушу) - быть близко к цели,
to run into difficult waters - попасть в затруднительное положение;
fish and fishing:
to fish in troubled water - ловить рыбу в мутной воде,
to drink like a fish - пить запоем,
to feed the fishes — утонуть; страдать морской болезнью;
sport:
to have the ball at one's feet - быть хозяином положения, иметь все преимущества в каком-либо деле,
to hit below the belt - применить запрещенный прием, не стесняться в выборе средств,
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to back the wrong horse - поставить не на ту лошадь, сделать неправильный выбор,
the ball is with you! – слово за вами!
army:
to stick to one's guns - не сдавать позиций; твердо проводить свою линию,
to mask one's batteries - скрывать, маскировать свое враждебное настроение,
to mark time (маршировать на месте - воен.) - топтаться на месте, бездействовать;
hunting:
to turn tail - обратиться в бегство, пуститься наутек, дать стрекача;
(as) hungry as a wolf;
zoosemv (animal life):
crocodile tears; lion's share; white elephant;
it rains cats and dogs;
theatre:
to play to the gallery - искать дешевой популярности, разводить демагогию;
to pull the ropes - управлять;
medicine:
to sweeten the draught - подсластить лекарство;
technic:
to get up steam - развести пары, дать волю чувствам;
with full steam on - на всех парах, поспешно;
to grease the wheels - смазать колеса, дать взятку;
agriculture:
to sow one's wild oats - отдаваться увлечениям юности;
to put the plough before the oxen - начинать не с того конца;
to get somebody's goat - разозлить кого-либо;
historical events, customs:
by hook or by crook - у трактирщиков старой Англии было в обычае тащить к себе клиентов, хватая их крюками. Женщин - за платье острыми крючками, мужчин - за ногу большими крюками;
peeping Tom - чересчур любопытный человек. Источник происхождения данного выражения - легенда о леди Годиве в Ковентри. Муж ее, граф, обложил город большими налогами. Годива заступилась за жителей. Граф поставил условие, что отменит налог, если Годива осмелится проехать в полдень обнаженной через весь город. Она приняла условие. Узнав об этом, жители сговорились в назначенный час закрыть наглухо ставни всех домов. Годива проехала по пустым улицам. Только портной Том подсматривал в щелку и ослеп. В Ковентри до сих пор есть городские часы, на которых в 12 часов открываются ставенки и из них выглядывает голова любопытного Тома;
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to win one's spurs - быть посвященным в рыцари; продвинуться (средневековый обычай - награждать шпорами при посвящении в рыцари); trade:
to talk shop - говорить по делу, to make the best of the bargain - получить доход, into the bargain - впридачу, best seller - ходкий товар; автор такой книги.
Proverbs
Besides phraseological units - word-equivalents, the language has set-phrases which are equivalents of sentences. They are proverbs, sayings, aphorisms,
e.g.:custom is the second nature - привычка вторая натура;
every man has a fool in his sleeve - на всякого мудреца довольно простоты;
too many cooks spoil the broth - у семи нянек дитя без глазу.
Proverb is a short saying, usually well-known and handed down from ancient times, containing words of advice, warning or wisdom.
Proverbs are reffered to phraseological units as they are usually metaphors and are coloured stylistically. Proverbs are set-phrases because they also are not created in the process of speech; they are part of the vocabulary which is created by folk.
If we compare Russian and English proverbs and phraseological fusions we'll discover some interesting phenomena. First of all, both languages have analogous proverbs,
e.g.:there is no smoke without fire - нет дыма без огня;
as the call, so the echo - как аукнется, так и откликнется;
strike iron while it is hot - куй железо, пока горячо;
don't look a gift horse into the mouth - дареному коню в зубы не смотрят.
Sometimes the meanings are analogous, but the semantic centre of the phrases is different in Russian and in English. It may be explained by different historical conditions at the same time when the parallel phrases appeared,
e.g.:Rome was not built in a day. - Москва не сразу строилась.
Life is not a bed of roses. - Жизнь прожить - не поле перейти.
Do in Rome as the Romans do. - С волками жить, по-волчьи выть.
В чужой монастырь со своим уставом не суйся.
As you make your bed so you must lie on it. - Сам заварил кашу, сам и расхлебывай.
As they sow, so let them reap. - Что посеешь, то и пожнешь.
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From: SEMANTICS
by F.R.Palmer 

Idioms. Idioms involve collocation of a special kind. Consider, for instance, kick the bucket,  fly off the handle, spill the beans, red herring. For here we not only have the collocation of kick and the bucket, but also the fact that the meaning of the resultant combination is opaque – it is not related to the meaning of the individual words, but is sometimes (though not always) nearer to the meaning of a single word (thus kick the bucket equals die).
Even where an idiom is semantically like a single word it does not function like one. Thus we will not have a past tense *kick-the-bucketed. Instead, it functions to some degree as a normal sequence of grammatical words, so that the past tense form is kicked the bucket  But there are a great number of grammatical restrictions. A large number of idioms contain a verb and a noun, but although the verb may be placed in the past tense, the number of the noun can never be changed. We have spilled the beans, but not *spill the bean and equally there is no *fly off the handles, *kick the buckets, *put on good faces, *blow one’s tops, etc. Similarly, with red herring the noun may be plural, but the adjective cannot be comparative (the –er form). Thus we find red herrings but not *redder herring.
There are also plenty of syntactic restrictions. Some idioms have passives, but others do not. The law was laid down and The beans have been spilled are all right (though some may question the latter), but *The bucket was kicked is not. But in no case could we say It was the – (beans that were spilled, law that was laid down, bucket that was kicked, etc.) The restrictions vary from idiom to idiom. Some are more restricted or ‘frozen’ that others.
A very common type of idiom in English is what is usually called the ‘phrasal verb’, the combination of verb plus adverb of the kind make up, give in, put down. The meaning of these combinations cannot be predicted from the individual verb and adverb and in many cases there is a single verb with the same or a very close meaning – invent, yield, quell. Not all combinations of this kind are idiomatic, of course. Put down has a literal sense too and there are many others that are both idiomatic and not, e.g. take in as in The conjuror took the audience in, The woman took the homeless children in. There are even degrees of idiomaticity since one can make up a story, make up a fire or make up one’s face. Moreover, it is not only sequences of verb plus adverb that may be idiomatic. There are also sequences of verb plus preposition, such as look after and go for, and sequences of verb, adverb and preposition, such as put up with (‘tolerate’) or do away with (’kill’).
 There are also what we may call partial idioms, where one of the words has its usual meaning, the other has a meaning that is peculiar to the particular sequence. Thus red hair refers to hair, but not hair that is red in strict colour terms. Comedians have fun with partial idioms of this kind, e.g. when instructed to make a bed they bring out a set of carpenter’s tools. An interesting set involves the word white, for white coffee is brown in colour, white wine is usually yellow, and white people are pink. Yet white is, perhaps, idiomatic only to some degree – it could be interpreted ‘the lightest in colour of that usually to be found’. Not surprisingly black is used as its antonym for coffee and people (though again neither are black in colour terms), yet it is not used for wine. Thus it can be seen that even partial idiomaticity can be a matter of degree and may in some cases be little more than a matter of collocational restriction. On a more comic level there is partial idiomaticity in raining cats and dogs (in Welsh it rains old women and sticks!).

What is and what is not an idiom is, then, often a matter of degree. It is very difficult, moreover, to decide whether a word or a sequence of words is opaque. We could, perhaps, define idioms in terms of non-equivalence in other languages, so that kick the bucket, red herring, etc., are idioms because they cannot be directly translated into French or German. But this will not really work. The French for nurse is garde-malade, but while this cannot be directly translated into English it is quite transparent, obviously meaning someone who looks after the sick. On the other hand, look after seems quite idiomatic, yet it can be quite directly translated into Welsh (edrych ar ol).
Firth saw collocation as just one of his levels or statements of meaning. Others have attempted to integrate it more closely to the other levels of linguistic analysis, to argue, for instance, that it may be handled within the level of lexis, which is related in a fairly direct and, in theory, precise way to grammar.   
                                                                                      (pp. 94-100)

PART IV. VARIETIES OF ENGLISH
STANDARD ENGLISH. NATIONAL VARIANTS AND LOCAL DIALECTS
Standard English is the official language of Great Britain used in its literary form. Regional varieties possessing a literary form are called national variants. Local dialects are varieties of English peculiar to some districts and having no normalized literary form. In Great Britain there are two variants, Scottish English and Irish English, and five main groups of dialects: Northern, Midland, Eastern, Western and Southern. Every group contains several (up to ten) dialects. The local dialects are used mainly by the rural population and only for the purposes of oral communication. Local distinctions are more marked in pronunciation, less conspicuous in vocabulary and insignificant in grammar. The British local dialects are traced back to Old English dialects. Numerous and distinct, they are characterized by phonemic and structural peculiarities.
One of the best known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of London. This dialect exists on two levels: as spoken by the educated lower middle classes and as spoken by the uneducated. In the first case Cockney is a regional dialect marked by some deviations in pronunciation but few in vocabulary and syntax. In the second case it differs from Standard English not only in pronunciation but also in vocabulary, morphology and syntax.
The Scottish Tongue and the Irish English have a special linguistic status as compared with dialects because of the literature composed in them. The name of Robert Burns, the great national poet of Scotland, is known all over the world. The poetic features of Anglo-Irish may be seen in the plays by J.M.Synge and Sean O'Casey.
English is the national language of England proper, the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Hence, there exist five national variants: British English (BE), American English (AE), Canadian English (CnE), Australian English (AuE), New Zealand English (NZE).
These five varieties of English are national variants of the same language, because their structural peculiarities, especially their word-formation system, syntax and morphology, as well as their word-stock and phonetic system are essentially the same. The main lexical differences of these variants from Standard English (General English) are connected with the lack of equivalent lexical units in one of them, divergences in the semantic structure of polysemantic words and peculiarities of usage of some words on the British Isles and in the
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named countries. The historic causes of the deviations in lexis are based on the fact of exporting the language of the mother country on a certain date of colonization.
The existing cases of difference between regional lexis and General English are classified into several groups:
1.	cases when different words are used for the same denotatum,
2.	cases when the semantic structure of a partially equivalent word is dif
ferent,
3.	cases when otherwise equivalent words are different in distribution,
4.	it sometimes happens that the same word is used with some difference
in emotional and stylistic colouring,
5.	there may be a marked difference in frequency characteristics.
Special words used in these variants are called: briticism, americanism,
canadism, australianism, newzealandism. They have no equivalents in General English, and they mostly belong to the following semantic groups: flora and fauna, trades and agriculture, names of the inhabitants of the country and the geographical names, everyday life, customs and traditions, historical events. Every national variant includes words from the language(s) of the native population.
AMERICAN ENGLISH
The variety of English spoken in the USA has received the name of American English. The term variant or variety appears most appropriate for several reasons. American English cannot be called a dialect although it is a regional variety, because it has a literary normalized form called Standard American, whereas a dialect has no literary form. Neither is it a separate language, as some American authors, like H. L. Mencken, claimed, because it has neither grammar nor vocabulary of its own.
An americanism - a word (set expression) peculiar to the English language as spoken in the USA. E.g. cookie 'a biscuit'; frame house 'a house consisting of a skeleton of timber, with broad or shingles laid on''; frame-up 'a staged or preconcerted law case'; guess 'think'; store 'shop'.
A general Aand comprehensive description of the American variant is given in Prof. A.D. Shweitzer's monograph. An important aspect of his treatment is the distinction made between americanisms belonging to the literary norm and those existing in low colloquial and slang.
The difference between the American and British literary norm is not systematic. The American variant of the English language differs from British
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English in pronunciation, some minor features of grammar, but chiefly in vocabulary.
The historic causes of the deviations. American English is based on the language imported to the new continent at the time of the first settlements, that is on the English of the 17th century. The first colonies were founded in 1607, so that the first colonizers were contemporaries of Shakespeare, Spenser and Milton. Words which have died out in Britain, or changed their meaning may have survived in the USA. Thus, I guess was used by Chaucer for / think. For more  than three centuries the American vocabulary developed more or less independently of the British stock and was influenced by the new surroundings. The early Americans had to coin words for the unfamiliar fauna and flora. Hence there appeared bull-frog 'a large frog', moose (the American elk), oppossum, raccoon - (an American animal related to bears), for animals; and corn, hickory, etc.  for plants. The settlers also had to find names for the new conditions of economic life: back-country 'districts not yet thickly populated', back-settlement, backwoods 'the forest beyond the cleared country', backwoodsman 'a dweller in the backwoods'.
The opposition of any two lexical systems among the variants described is of great linguistic and heuristic value because it furnishes ample date for observing the influence of extra-linguistic factors upon the vocabulary. American political vocabulary shows this point very definitely: absentee voting Voting by mail', dark horse 'a candidate nominated unexpectedly and not known to his voters', to gerrymander 'to arrange and falsify the electoral process to produce a favorable result in the interests of a particular party or candidate', all-outer 'an adept of decisive measures'.
Many of the foreign elements borrowed into American English from the Indian dialects or from Spanish penetrated very soon not only into British English but also into several other languages, Russian not excluded, and so became international. They are: canoe, moccasin squaw, tomahawk, wigwam, etc., and translation loans: pipe of peace, pale-face and the like, taken from Indian languages. The Spanish borrowings like cafeteria, mustang, ranch, sombrero, etc. are very familiar to the speakers of many European languages.
As to the toponyms, for instance, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Missouri, Utah (all names of Indian tribes), or other names of towns, rivers and states named by Indian words, it must be borne in mind that in all countries of the world towns, rivers and the like show in their names traces of the earlier inhabitants of the land in question.
Another big group of peculiarities as compared with the English of Great Britain is caused by some specific features of pronunciation, stress or spelling
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standards, such as [ae] for [a:] in ask, dance, path, etc., or [e] for [ei] in made,    » day and some others.
The American spelling is in some respects simpler than its British counterpart, in other respects just different. The suffix -our is spelled -or, so that armor and humor are the American variants of armour and humour. Altho stands for although and thru for through. The table below illustrates some of the other differences but it is by no means exhaustive.
British spelling           American spelling
cosy	cozy
offence	offense
practice	practise
jewellery	jewelry
travelling	traveling
thralldom	thraldom
encase	incase
In the course of time with the development of the modern means of communication the lexical differences between the two variants show a tendency to decrease. Americanisms penetrate into Standard English and briticisms come to be widely used in American speech. It was, for instance, customary to contrast the English word autumn with the American fall In reality both words are used in both countries, only autumn is somewhat more elevated, while in England the word fall is now rare in literary use, though found in some dialects and surviving in set expressions: spring and fall, the fall of the year are still in fairly common use.
Cinema and TV are probably the most important channels for the passage of americanisms into the language of Britain and other languages as well: the Germans adopted the word teenager and the French speak of Г automatization. The British term wireless is replaced by the americanism radio. The jargon of American film-advertising makes its way into British usage; i.e. of all time (in «the greatest film of all time»). The phrase is now firmly established as standard vocabulary and is applied to subjects other than films.
The personal visits of writers and scholars to the USA and all forms of other personal contacts bring back americanisms.
The existing cases of difference between the two variants are conveniently classified into:
1) Cases where there are no equivalent in British English - drive-in
'a cinema where you can see the film without getting out of your car' or    'a shop where motorist can buy things staying in the car'; dude ranch 'a sham ranch
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used as a summer residence for holiday-makers from the cities'. The noun dude was originally a contemptuous nickname given by the inhabitants of the Western states to those of the Eastern states. Now there is no contempt intended in the word dude. It simply means 'a person who pays his way on a far ranch or camp”.
2)	Cases where different words are used for the same denotatum, such as can, candy, mailbox, movies, suspenders, truck in the USA and tin, sweets, pillar-box (or letter-box), pictures or flicks, braces and lorry in England.
3)	Cases where the semantic structure of a partially equivalent word is different. The word pavement, for example, means in the first place 'covering of the street or the floor and the like made of asphalt, stones or some other material'. The derived meaning is in England 'the footway at the side of the road1. The Americans use the noun sidewalk for this, while pavement with them
means 'roadway'.
4)	Cases where otherwise equivalent words are different in distribution. The verb ride in Standard English is mostly combined with such nouns as a horse, a bicycle, more seldom they say to ride on a bus. In American English combinations like a ride on the train, to ride in a boat are quite usual.
5)	The same word is used in American English with some difference in emotional and stylistic colouring. Nasty, for example, is a much milder expres sion of disapproval in England than in the States, where it was even considered obscene in the 19th century. Politician in England means 'someone in polities', and is derogatory in the USA.
6)	There may be a marked difference in frequency characteristics. Thus, time-table which occurs in American English very rarely, yielded its place to
schedule.
This question of different frequency distribution is also of paramount importance if we wish to investigate the morphological peculiarities of the American variant.
Practically speaking the same patterns and means of word-formation are used in coining neologisms in both variants. Only the frequency observed in both cases may be different. Some of the suffixes more frequently used in American English are: -ее (draftee 'a young man about to be enlisted),- ettte (tambourmajorette 'one of the girl drummers in front of a procession1), -dom and -ster, as in roadster 'motor-car for long journeys by road' or gangster dom.
American slang uses alongside the traditional ones also a few specific models, such as verb stem + -er + adverb stem + -er: e.g. opener-upper 'the first item on the programme' and winder-upper 'the last item1, respectively. It also possesses some specific affixes and semi-affixes not used in literary col-
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loquial: -о, -eroot ~aroo, -sie/sy, as in coppo 'policeman', fatso ла fat man', bossaroo 'boss', chapsie 'fellow'.
The trend to shorten words and to use initial abbreviations is even more pronounced than in the British variant. New coinages are introduced: in advertisements, in the press, in everyday conversatiori; soon they fade out and are replaced by the newest creations. Ring Lardner, very popular in the 30's, makes one of his characters, a hospital nurse, repeatedly use two enigmatic abbreviations: G.F. and B. F.; at last the patient asks her to clear the mystery,
«What about Roy Stewart?» asked the man in bed.
«Oh, he's the fella I was telling you about» said Miss Lyons, «He's my G. F.’ s B.F.»
«Мay be Гт a D.F. not to know, but would you tell me what a B.F. and G.F. are?»
«Well, you are dumb, aren't you?» said Miss Lyons, «A G.F, that's a girl friend, and a B.F. is a boyfriend. I thought everybody knew that.»
Particularly common in American English; are verbs with the hanging postpositive. They say that in Hollywood you never meet a man:, you meet up with him, you do not study a subject but study up on it. In British English similar constructions serve to add a new meaning.
The lexical peculiarities of American English are an easy target for ironical outbursts on the part of some writers, John Updike is mildly humorous. His short poem «Philological» runs as follows:
The British puss demurely mews;
His transatlantic kin meow,
The kine in Minnesota moo;
Not so the gentle Devon cows:
They low,
As every schoolchild ought to know.
Although not sufficiently great to warrant American English the status of an independent language, it is considerable enough to make a mixture of variants sound unnatural, so that students of English should be warned against this danger.

The American English, apart from British English, is not the only existing variant. There are several other variants -where difference from the British standard is normalized. They are Australian English, Canadian English, New Zealand English. Each of them
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has developed a literature of its own, and is characterized by peculiarities in phonetics, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.

The vocabulary of all the variants is characterized by a high percentage of borrowings from the language of the people who inhabited the land before the English colonizers came. Many of them denote some specific realia of the new country: local animals, plants or weather conditions, new social relations, new trades and conditions of labour. The local words for new notions penetrate into the English language and later on may become international, if they are of sufficient interest and importance for people speaking other languages. The term international words is used to denote words borrowed from one language into several others simultaneously or at short intervals one after another.

Canadian English

English appeared in Canada  in the 17th cent. with the British colonizers, who met there not only the native people -  Red Indians and Eskimos, but with the French colonizers as well, who settled in Canada even earlier – in the 16th cent. Consequently there appeared “French Canada” and “British Canada”. Since the second half of  the 18th cent. there enforced immigration of Englishmen and Americans. Besides, quite a large group of Scots and Irish moved to Canada, who settled  the province of Nova Scotia. 
Modern Canada is a federal state which consists of ten provinces and two territories. The population of Canada is mixed: the main part consists of  British Canadians (one half) – the descendants of the British and American settlers, French Canadians (one third of the population) – the offsprings of the first settlers of Canada, and representatives of other nations – Slavonic, Germans, Dutch, Italians and the native people – Indians and Eskimos.  
The mixed character of the population naturally finds its reflection in the language. Canadian lexis has much in common with general American, as well as with British. The Canadian vocabulary is comprised of borrowings from the Indian languages and from French, by the way of new coinages from English with the help  of different word-forming means, as well as by giving new meaning to old words. 
The Indian languages gave names to animals, birds, fishes plants, etc., and also to objects and phenomena which were new for the colonizers: barboka – приспособление для жарения или копчения мяса, dunch – недопеченный хлеб, huggerum buff – поджаренная рыба с картофелем, запеченные в лепешку, lassie loaf – хлеб с патокой, dwy – неожиданная буря со снегом или с дождем, shad – небольшой снег, rampole, rampike – сухой пень, pack - удар, abito, bito, abordeau - шлюз, frazil – лед на дне реки, bog-slad – сани для перевозки бревен, shack - хижина, gobby – помешанный на чем-либо, puckerin – больной , cowly - жестокий, liverish - тошнотный, muckered - усталый, slinky - тонкий, slovey – нежный, мягкий, lund - спокойный, to douse - одурачивать, to glutch - глотать, to heck – идти быстро, moolie , mulley – безрогая корова.
Most of the geographical names in Canada are also borrowed from Indian and French. In the parts of the country inhabited by the French, there are English and French names at the same time: Trois-Rivieres or Three Rivers.
Some English words acquired  new meaning in Canada: airsome - холодный, cozy - энергичный, proud - довольный, tidy - быстрый, fist - хватать, to saddle - соглашаться, hocks - сапоги, raw – неотесанный парень, rack - гребенка, smack – короткое время, scheme - несчастье, batch – сильный снег, pandy - почти, lop - волна, frog – название напитка.    
In Canadian slang there are many lexemes made from the material of the English language,  as well as hybrid compounds or collocations: bake, white nose - новичок, corner-boy - горожанин, merry-me-got – внебрачный ребенок, omaloor – неуклюжий парень, hang-ashore - бродяга, hardware – спиртные напитки, drop-ball – серьги; to go on the breese – напиться пьяным, to go to oil – стать ничтожеством, to live fast (against) – серрдиться на кого-либо, to make wonder - удивляться, on a pig’s back – в хороших условиях, to make fire – скандалить.
The words used in Canada are called canadianisms (by analogy with Americanisms and Briticisms).

Australian English
The Australian Commonwealth – the British dominion – was founded in 1901; before that the states were independent colonies, ruled separately by the  British Government.
In the 20th century the population of Australia was a special nation differing from the British, and it was united by the common language, territory, economic relations and culture. On the Australian continent, the word Australian does not denote an aborigene, but an offspring of the first English settlers, so by speaking  about Australian nation, Australian literature and language, we mean the nation, literature and language of the white population.
Australian English has peculiarities in pronunciation, intonation, spelling and grammar. But the greatest difference is observed in lexis.
In Australia the first settlers (1788) found themselves in quite new natural surrounding. The new objects and concepts required creating  new names. In this two ways were used: making up words of English morphemes and exploiting English means of word-formation, and borrowing. 
In Australian English some words keep the meanings which in England became obsolete and even disappeared, e.g. the word stock  in the meaning «скот» in England is used only in the combination live-stock,  but in Australia this meaning is kept in the word itself,  in compounds and derivatives: stockman – пастух, stock yard – скотопригонный двор, stock-house – скотный двор, stock-holder – скотовод, stock-run -  выгон, stock-station – скотоводческая ферма, stock-keeper – владелец фермы,  to stock-keep – заниматься скотоводством, to stock up – разводить скот, the word paddock in England has the meaning небольшой выгон, лужайка, but in Australia – огороженный земельный надел любого размера, to paddock – поместить за ограду (о скоте), to paddock land – огородить землю, heifer-paddock – женская школа.
The word station (скотоводческая ферма) acquires a broader usage in Australia. This word is used in a great number of collocations: heifer-station – ферма, на которой выращивается молодняк, outside station – ферма, расположенная во внутренних районах страны, station black  - туземец, station mark – клеймо, station jack – мясной пудинг, etc.
The word pastoralist  in great Britain has the meaning фермер-овцевод, in Australia – человек, занятый производством любых продуктов сельского хозяйства, township in England – церковный приход, in Australia – город; wattle in England - прут, плетень, сделанный из прутьев, in Australia – акация (the first settlers built their homes from branches of Australian wattle and clay; so the wattle itself was named by this  word, and homes of this kind – wattle-and-dub huts or simply wattles.
The usage of the same word-forming means in England and Australia often leads to appearing of differences in lexis, which can be possibly explained by the long distance between the countries.
The analysis of the following extract  proves this fact.
We “embossed”. This hideous word was the invention of some military genius and meant simply that we got aboard trucks. Having “embussed” we travelled the few miles to Liverpool railway station. There we “debussed” and “entrained”. The train then chugged erratically down to Darling  Harbour, where we “detrained” and “embarked”. Everyone got aboard and no spies had observed us embussing or debussing, entraining or detraining, nor even embarking. (From:  R.Brandon, The Naked Island).
The verbs embus, debus, entrain, and detrain are not registered in dictionaries. 
To the same kind of words the following lexemes can be referred: greyness – серый цвет, sundowner – бродяга (человек, который на заходе солнца ищет пищи и крова на ночь);  two-up – игра двумя монетами – наподобие игры в орлянку,  milk-bar – молочное кафе, push – толпа, peopleless – безлюдный, to unsit – лишать места,  sundown  - бродяжничать   (back-formation from sundowner ),  finalize – завершать, заканчивать, and its derivative finalization.
The noun Australia was the basis for forming such derivatives and word-combinations as: australism – австрализм, australiana - австралиана, un-Australian – чуждый Австралии, pan-Australian - проавстралийский, Aussie (slang) – австралиец (formed from the stem Australian with the help of the suffix –ie),  Westralian – житель Западной Австралии (blending of the nouns West Australian), australite – австралит (meteorite found in the states of Victoria, South and West Australia), australize – натурализоваться в Австралии, Australian grip – австралийское, т.е. сильное, дружеское рукопожатие, Australian policy – политика запрещения иммиграции из стран Азии.
In colloquial speech and especially slang Australians use many shortenings: abo – aborigine - туземец, bacca – tobacco, exes – expences, moles – moleskin trousers – брюки из молескина, Nor-Wester – северо-западный ветер, this after – this afternoon, my troubs – my troubles, pub – public, man-o’-war – man of war, god-o’mighty – god-almighty, etc.   
Very often Australians use suffixes –y and –ie for word-formation, and they  do not give diminutiveness to the words as it happens in England, but make the words sound a bit rough and friendly: roughy (rough) -  грубиян,  shrewdy (shrewd) – проницательный человек. The suffix can join the cut stem of the word: possie – position, adjie – adjutant, cryssie – chrysanthemum; to the stem of the first element of of a compound: milky – milkman, footie – football; to the stem of the word which is part of a word-combination: bussy – bus driver, trammy – tram conductor, rocky – rock wallaby – каменный кенгуру.
Differences of Australian English in the sphere of literary layer of vocabulary can be observed in phraseology as well: to do a perish - умирать, to do a get – быстро удалиться, to whip the cat – потерянного не воротишь (cf. with English to cry over spilt milk), to be within cooee, to keep in touch by cooeeing – быть, держаться в пределах слышимости (the word cooee in the meaning окликать, аукать was borrowed from the language of the aborigines of the country), to keep out of harm’s way – держаться от греха подальше, to get bushed - заблудиться, bush-telegraph – ложный слух, (from the vocabulary of bushrangers, where this word had the meaning передача сведений о движении полицейских отрядов через сообщников), to pay on tick – платить в рассрочку.
The number of borrowings from other languages is not large. These are mainly borrowings from aborigine languages. According to the census of 1933 geographical names of  Australia include about 4700 words of native population, which makes one third of the whole number of geographical names. The melody  and unusual sounding  of the words inspired D.D.Lang to create a poem which consists of the geographical names only : 

I like the native names as Paratta
And Illawarra, and Woolloomooloo,
Nandowra, Woogarora, Bulkomatta,
Tenah, Toongabbie, Mittagong, Meroo...

(From: S.J.Baker, The Australian Language, Sydney, 1945, p.198).

At present  the words of native origin are broadly used for the names of hotels, ships, pet names, etc.
As for the names of large settlements, the Australians did not show much inventiveness: there are two Cardiffs, two Virginias, Liverpool, Toronto and others in Australia.
Other borrowings from the aborigine languages mainly refer to the names of objects and events of everyday life: coolamon – сосуд для хранения влды, boomerang - бумеранг, woomera – приспособление для метания копья, walpa – род лодки, waddy - дубинка, tabee – ритуальная песнь туземцев, corroboree – религиозные праздничные пляски, (in colloquial language this word also means шум, производимый группой людей), humpy, uloo - хижина, miah (mia-mia) - шалаш, lava-lava – набедренная повязка, gina-gina – женская одежда, gin, lubra – туземная женщина или девушка, cooboo - ребенок, kangaroo - кенгуру, dingo – динго (дикая австралийская собака), malee – австралийская  акация, mulga – разновидность эвкалипта, etc.
The speech of Australians was enriched  by the words which lost the native colour: cooee – окликать, аукать, willy-willy - смерч, jabber - язык (to jabber - говорить), billy – котелок для кипячения воды, bogie - купаться, dillybag – мешок, сплетенный из травы и овечьей шерсти, gibber - камень (mainly it is used in collocations: gibber plains, gibber country), myall – дикий, неприрученный, etc. 
The 20th century saw the tendency of  broadening the number of borrowings from aborigine languages. The appearing of the genre of historical novel devoted to to the years of gold rushes and to the severe life of  first settlers naturally arose interest to the native people of the country, and that was the reason of  enriching  litatrary language of Australian English by the native words.
Enlarging the number of  borrowings was facilitated by the fact that till recently in Australia there was no system of terminology reflecting flora and fauna of the continent which comprises thousands of endemic plants and animals. In 1955 the dictionary Australian Aboriginal Words and Place Names, which included about three thousand of word entries, was published in Melbourne. There is a very interesting idea in the Introduction: “Australian people are now showing an inclination to favour the use of aboriginal names   for their homes, the idea  could perhaps be extended to other things or places for which an Australian name would be desirable, with advantage to the furthering of the growth of a distinct national feeling.” (From: S.J.Endacott, Australian Aboriginal Words and Place Names, Melbourne, 1955, Foreword).
New Zealand English

New Zealand is one of the farthest  former dominions of Great Britain, and from the first days of its development is economically closely connected with Australia. Their relations found  reflection in the vocabulary. New Zealanders’ speech and especially New Zealand slang include a great number of  australianisms, which appeared in different historical periods of the development of the country. In the early years of colonization there appeared such words as: bush – лес (alongside with  bush in New Zealand the word forest is still used, whereas in Australia it came out of usage long ago), backblocks – внутренние районы страны, paddock – огороженный земельный надел или приусадебный участок,  gridironing, spotting – выборочная скупка земли, post-and-rail fence – обмазанный глиной забор из прутьев акации, break – забор, который по мере надобности легко разбирается и переносится на другое место, squatter - землевладелец, cocky – мелкий фермер-арендатор, stock-whip - кнут,  stock - скот (together with it the word cattle is used in New Zealand),  mob – отара, стадо, табун (the word flock is also used  ).
In the years of gold rush such common  for Australia and New Zealand words appeared in the language as: digger – золотоискатель, парень, to fossick -  искать золото, nugget – золотой слиток, reef – золотоносная жила, shanty - трактир, colour – золотой песок, etc.
Other words of Australian origin are everyday words of New Zealand  English:  tucker - еда, damper – пресная лепешка, lollies - конфеты, sundowner, swagger – бродяга, сезонный рабочий, wowser - ханжа, sheila - девушка, billy – котелок для кипячения воды, dincum - честный, etc.
The divergence of the New Zealand and  British vocabulary definitely is  not limited by the australianisms spread in New Zealand.  Though the influence of literary English on New Zealanders’ speech is great it cannot slow down the process of creating new words. One of such early creations is the word Newzealander which on the dawn of colonization meant native (Maori). The whites in their turn  were called by the word pakeha, which was borrowed from Polinesian (pakeha aggression, pakeha customs, pakeha Maori). By the end of  the 19th cent. the word Newzealander broadens its meaning and begins to be used to name any member of the population. Sometimes Newzealanders are called 
pig-islanders, which has the historical basis: the pigs brought to New Zealand on ships by captain Cook multiplied in number, got wild and became a threat to the economy of the country. By the way, the New Zealand wild pig is called Captain Cooker. 
Colonization of New Zealand began on the western coast of the South Island, its inhabitants till now have kept the name coasters. The first  colonizers settled in poor dwellings called shacks, cob cottages or whares on the coast, and then penetrated further into  the country – bush. Later on this word gave birth to a number of New Zealand collocations: bushfighting – войны с маори, bushlayer – стелющаяся лесная куманика, доставлявшая много хлопот при расчистке лесных участков, bush-siddy – рабочий на лесной просеке, по которой стволы деревьев переправляются на лесопильный завод, break-down men – рабочие, очищающие от коры и сучьев стволы деревьев, bush-sickness – название одной из болезней скота, bush warbler,  bush hawk, bush wren – породы новозеландских лесных птиц.
The years of hard and persistent work passed; in the time of gold rush and boom land development there were born and disappeared boom cities, boom towns; the profile of the national economics was determined. Land owners which earlier preferred to live in Great Britain (absentees), moved to New Zealand or sold the land in parts (blocks, sections) to squatters. Gradually the landscape of the country changed: thick forests gave way to pastures and fields, wild animals were killed. Coniferous forests characteristic of New Zealand -     endemic pine trees kauri, totara, kahikatea, rimu, maire – were energetically cut down. Especially valuable was the gigantic tree kauri used in ship-building. Like most New Zealand trees, it grows very slowly, that is why the cruel cutting out of that tree was a sad loss for the nature.
Consequences of colonization turned out to be disastrous for animal world as well, which is especially rich and various among the birds. Since the beginning of the 20th cent. the government of New Zealand has been taking care of the environment and the law now protects plants, animals and birds.  There are birds sanctuaries too, for the Newzealanders  have grown more conscious  of their birds and trees. They are proud of fantails and shining cuckoos, the tius, and strange flightless birds, the wood hen or the weka, and the kiwi. The bush to the Newzealander means the stillness and quiet of trees. It means the totara, the rimu and the maire, it means the lancewood and coprosomas, the ribbonwood and puriri with bright pink flowers, the rata with red blossoms flaming on a hillside.

PART VI LEXICOGRAPHY

The ultimate goal of lexicography is the art of making dictionaries. Lexicology deals with words, forms and structure, lexical meaning, usage and diachronic analysis (origin and development). Lexicography is applied knowledge of lexicology. There is a constant give and take reciprocal relationship between lexicology and lexicography. They both strive for completeness and systematization. The only distinction is that lexicography is exhaustive in listing and describing all the existing words, i.e. the lexical units in a language, which is not the case with lexicology that only chooses examples to provide rules and principles.

               1.Types of dictionaries
1.	Problems in lexicography.
2.	3.H. Sweet about dictionaries.
Types of dictionaries
1.	Monolingual (explanatory); bilingual (translation); multilingual.
2.	General - very general lexical stock and vocabulary; specific – covers some specific parts or areas of vocabulary.
3.	The size of the dictionaries could be: pocket, standard, encyclopedic.
4.	Specific such as: linguistic, medical or technical, etymological, phonological, etc.
5.	Linguistic monolingual dictionaries which deal with one specific aspect from linguistics: dictionary of proper names; of proverbs; loanwords; phraseology, etc. 
In standard dictionaries there is information and order — alphabetically listed words, phonetic transcription and a word class.

Problems in Lexicography
1.	Selection of head words - selection of the items included in the dictionary is done according to the type and size (general, pocket dictionary).
2.	Arrangement of lexical entries — the way the items are arranged, e.g. each other, where  these two words  should be listed under E or O.or  they
should be separated, e.g. department store  under D or S. Whatever option is implied there has to be used only one principle.
3.. Problem of homonymy and polysemy, e.g. pupil and pupil'  - whether they have different entries in the dictionary;
4.	Whether to list all the compounds of a word, all the derivatives possible; whether to list the obsolete words, the archaic words or slang words.
5.	Definition of meaning - there are two types of dictionaries:
a.	linguistic type - the interpretation is given in metalinguistic way; use of language is to describe language (sense);
b.	encyclopedic type - using geographical and historical data to define   the words - (reference).

H.Sweet about Dictionaries
 Study of the Vocabulary
It will, perhaps, be most convenient to begin with that aspect of the dictionary which makes it the reverse of the grammar. From this point of view we have already defined a dictionary as a collection of the isolated phenomena of a language - those which cannot easily and conveniently be brought under general rules. It follows from this that the main function of a dictionary is to give the meanings of separate words. Some dictionaries confine themselves strictly to this function. But a dictionary which does not sacrifice everything to giving as large a vocabulary as possible in the shortest space ought to give a good deal more than this.
Idioms fall entirely within the province of the dictionary, because the meaning of each idiom is an isolated fact which cannot be inferred from the meaning of the words of which the idiom is made up: a dictionary which explains the meaning of do without explaining that of How do you do? is useless as a guide to the meanings of words.
A thoroughly useful dictionary ought, besides, to give information on various grammatical details, which, though they fall under general rules of grammar, are too numerous or too arbitrary and complicated to be treated of in detail in any but a full reference-grammar: such a dictionary ought to give full information about those grammatical constructions which characterize individual words, and cannot be deduced with certainty and ease from a simple grammatical rule. Thus it ought to give full information about the prepositions by which verbs are connected with the words they govern (think of, think about, think over, part from, part with). (...)
As convenience of reference requires that a dictionary should be as little bulky as is consistent with efficiency, it is advisable that its scope should be
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distinctly defined and strictly limited, A dictionary of English for practical use by foreigners, or a French or German dictionary for practical use by English speakers, is, in the nature of things, mainly a dictionary of the present stage of these languages: its foundation is the modern colloquial and literary language, which involves, of course, the inclusion of a certain number of archaic words used in the higher literature, together with a certain amount of slang and vulgarisms and those dialectal words which, have found their way into general literature and conversation. (...)
Most of our larger English dictionaries, ;are also compromises between an expanded dictionary and an abridged cyclopedia. The fundamental distinction between a dictionary and a cyclopedia is, that the dictionary has to explain words, the cyclopedia has to explain things. The main function of the dictionary is to identify each word with its meaning or meanings, and give the details of its linguistic use as far as they do not fall entirely and exclusively under the province of grammar. This is clearly shown in the use we make of dictionaries of foreign languages. If we are ignorant of the meaning of the French word  fleur, we look it up in our French-English dictionary, where we find the English translation 'flower', without any further comment, it being assumed that we know what a flower is. We feel that the translation is a surer guide to the meaning than the most elaborate definition. In an English dictionary for English people the same method of translation is followed as far as possible: commence and purchase are defined by being translated into the simpler 'begin' and 'buy', and we fall back on definition only when absolutely obliged to do so. Some of the more naive among the older dictionaries openly give up the attempt to define by such evasions as telling us that dog is 'the name of a well-known animal'. Even Walker's celebrated definition of a flea as 'a small insect of remarkable agility' would be of little use to any one who did not know already what a flea was.
But it may happen that in reading French we come across the name of some flower that is not found out of France, or, at any rate, not in England, so that when we look up the word in the French dictionary, the only explanation we find is 'name of a flower' with, perhaps, the botanical name, which probably conveys no meaning to our minds; we have not, therefore, learnt anything from the dictionary beyond what we could probably have gathered from the context without any further help. Nevertheless, the dictionary has done everything in its power to identify the word with the thing expressed by it; it is our want of knowledge of the thing itself which prevents us from profiting by the dictionary's identification. If we look up the botanical name in a cyclopedia, we can acquire a more or less definite idea of the thing itself- the flower.
There can be no question of the usefulness and convenience of the brief explanations of the ideas and objects expressed by rare words which our larger dictionaries give: these explanations afford the reader enough information to
enable him to form an idea of the real nature of the thing represented by the unfamiliar word without obliging him to wade through a sea of detail.
. But it is a question whether it would not be better to publish such information in a separate book than to mix it up with the legitimate material of a dictionary - namely, the identification of familiar ideas with the words which express them. An educated Frenchman just beginning English is ignorant of the meaning of the commonest verbs and adjectives in English, but he will not require to be told what oxygen is, or how lithography is carried on. It is not meant that these words should be excluded from a practical dictionary; on the contrary, they are examples - especially the latter - of a numerous class of words which form a debatable ground between necessary, everyday words and purely special and technical words.
A further reason for separating the special or encyclopedic from the general or lexical words lies in the different treatment they require. While the former demand, or, at least, allow, a more or less elaborate and lengthy description of the thing they denote, accompanied, perhaps, with pictures or diagrams, they are generally barren from the linguistic point of view, for they offer neither varied shades of meaning nor irregularities of form, nor do they enter into idiomatic combinations or special grammatical constructions. With the lexical words the relations are reversed: the greater the number of irregularities of form a word offers, and the more complex and varied its meanings and idiomatic combinations and special constructions are, the more indispensable for expressing ideas, and the more independent of encyclopedic treatment it is sure to be.
We arrive, then, at the result that for purposes of practical study of modern languages we require dictionaries which are strictly limited to the modern language, and exclude all encyclopedic elements - that is, all words of which it is conceivable that an educated native might say that he had never seen them in literature or that he did not know what they meant. Such a dictionary would, of course, include debatable words, unless it were intended for very elementary purposes, in which case it might exclude even such words as abacus, habeas corpus, iambic, nabob, oxygen.
But it would be very difficult to lay down any general principles by which we could exclude all encyclopedic words without hesitation, and the ordinary compromise has its practical advantages. (...)
The first business of a dictionary is to give the meanings of the words in plain, simple, unambiguous language. There must be no 'etymological translation1, no translation into obsolete or dialectal words. When we look up Isece in an Old-English dictionary  and find it translated 'leech' as well as 'physician', we ought to be quite sure that leech here has its genuine modern meaning, and is not a mere repetition of the meaning of the other word.
Again, some dictionary-makers think it necessary to translate every slang
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or colloquial word or expression in one language into a slang word or expression in the other language. The result is that they sometimes use some provincial or obsolete word or expression which may be quite unintelligible to the majority of their readers, and, indeed, may soon become unintelligible to all of them, for nothing becomes obsolete sooner than a certain class of slang colloquialisms. Most languages are so ambiguous in themselves that it is folly to go out of one's way to make them more so; and in a dictionary everything is detached and isolated, so that there is but little context to help. In fact, without the help of quotations it is almost impossible to define meanings with certainty. (...)
Quotations are next in importance to definitions. Indeed, in a large dictionary or thesaurus, the quotations are the, dictionary, and their arrangement is a matter of almost subordinate importance. They cannot, of course, be given with any great fullness in most short dictionaries. But in some cases a quotation is both shorter and clearer than a definition. All sentences that have anything of the character of proverbs or formulae deserve a place in every dictionary. Such sentences, indeed, can hardly be regarded as quotations, any more than idioms, which are as much a part of the common stock of the language as the words themselves: like them, they cannot be constructed a priori. (...)
In the first place, it must be borne in mind that the ultimate ideas of language are by no means identical with those of psychology, still less with those of metaphysics. Language is not in any way concerned with such psychological problems as the1 origin of our ideas of space and matter; for at the time when language was evolved, these conceptions were already stereotyped in the form of simple ideas, incapable of any but deliberate scientific analysis. Even such universally known facts as the primary data of astronomy have had little or no influence on language, and even the scientific astronomer no more hesitates to talk of "the rising to the sun” than did the astrologers of ancient Chaldэea. Language, in short, is based not on things as we know or think them to be but as they seem to us. (...)
At first, the meanings of words will be learnt mechanically one by one by associations with their context. In every language there are a certain number of words which the learner remembers at once, either because they are borrowed from or are cognate with words already familiar to him in his own or some other language, or through some chance resemblance to known words. These words are, as it were, centres round which other words crystallize, each new association leading to further associations, till at last the chief part of the elementary vocabulary of the language forms a solid mass of associations each connected in various ways with others.
From: The Practical Study of Languages by Henry Sweet
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CONCLUSION
 METHODS AND PROCEDURES OF LEXICOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
1.	Procedures of linguistic investigation.
2.	Contrastive analysis.
3.	Statistical analysis.
4.	Immediate constituents analysis.
5.	Distributional analysis.
6.	Transformational analysis.
7.	Componental analysis.
8.	Method of semantic differential.
Procedures of Linguistic Investigation
Acquaintance with the currently used procedures of linguistic investigation is of considerable importance both for language learners and for prospective teachers as it gives them the possibility to observe how linguists obtain answers to certain questions and is of help in the preparation of teaching material. It also helps language learners to become good observers of how language works and this is the only lasting way to become better users of language.
The process of scientific investigation may be subdivided into several stages: 1. observation; 2. classification of the data obtained through observation; 3. generalization, i.e. the collection of data and their orderly arrangement must lead to the formulation of a generalization or hypothesis, rule or law; 4. verifying process.
All methods of linguistic analysis are traditionally subdivided into formalized and non-formalized procedures. The selection of this or that particular procedure largely depends on the goal set before the investigator.
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive linguistics attempts to find out similarities and differences in languages. Detailed comparison of the structure of a native and a target language is called contrastive analysis. The necessity of this analysis is very great for a language learner. One of major problems in learning of the second language is interference caused by the difference between the mother language of the learner and the target language. This analysis is applied to reveal the features of sameness and difference in the lexical meaning and the semantic structure of correlated words in different languages, e.g.: нога - foot, leg; рука -arm, hand; часы - clock, watch.
English: head of a person - in  Russian: голова
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of a bed	изголовье
of а со in	сторона
of a match	головка
of a table	глава
of an organization	глава, начальник
Head corresponds to different words in Russian.
Contrastive analysis on the level of the grammatical meaning reveals that correlated words in different languages may .differ in the grammatical component of the meaning, e.g. news, money,  hair  -   in Russian they have the grammatical meaning of  plurality, in English they are singular.                             
Another example: in Russian there is no category of definite-ness/ indefiniteness, in English this category is expressed by means of articles.
Contrastive analysis deals with idiomatic (phraseological) side of the language too.
He is a heavy smoker, - He smokes a lot; 
He is a hearty eater. - He likes to eat.
In general, contrastive analysis is of paramount importance for scientists and language-learning people, as it predicts typical errors.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis has considerable importance not only because of its precision but also because of its relevance to certain problems of communication engineering and information theory. Statistical analysis is of great importance in the selection of vocabulary of a foreign language for teaching purposes.
It is common knowledge that very few people know more than 10% of  the words of their mother language. Out of about 500,000 words listed in the 'OED the «passive» vocabulary of an educated Englishman comprises no more than 30.000 words and-of these 4,000 - 5,000 are presumed to be sufficient for .the daily needs. Thus, it is evident that the, problem of selection of teaching vocabulary is of vital importance.
Statistic analysis helps to determine-the frequency of occurrence of the words. Hence, it gives the opportunity to decide which meaning is primary (or secondary), and collocability of words. Statistical analysis should not be confused with purely numerical counts (the first involves the use of some mathematical formula).
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Immediate Constituents Analysis
Immediate constituents analysis has the aim to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or immediate constituents (IC) thus revealing the hierarchical structure of the set.
E.g.: fat man's wife = fat man's/ wife;
de/ nationalize; blue/ eye/ ed.
This kind of analysis is widely used in word-formation.
Distributional Analysis
Distributional analysis in its various forms is widely used nowadays by lexicologists. By distribution we understand the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same level (words relative to words, morphemes relative to morphemes, etc.). In other words by this term we understand the position which lexical units occupy or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech, e.g.: he teaches; she plays.
Distribution and meaning are interdependent. It is only the distribution of otherwise completely identical lexical units that accounts for the difference in the meaning of water tap and tap water, life-boat and boat-life.
It should be noted that not only words in a word-group but also whole word-groups may acquire a certain denotational meaning due to a certain distributional pattern to which this particular meaning is habitually attached. E.g., habitually the word preceding ago denotes a certain period of time (an hour ago, a month ago) and the whole word-group denotes a certain temporal unit. In this particular distributional pattern any word is bound to acquire an additional lexical meaning of a certain period of time (a grief ago, three cigarettes ago). Distributional pattern as such seems to possess a component of meaning not to be found in individual words making up the word-group (a grief, a cigarette).
Distributional analysis is mainly applied by the linguists to find out sameness or difference of meaning, e.g.: cage-bird - bird-cage; boat-life - life-boat.
By distribution we understand the aptness of a word in one of its meanings to collocate or to co-occur with a certain group, or certain groups of words having some common semantic component, e.g.: He stopped at the corner of the street. - He stopped to greet me. - He stopped writing; blind man, girl, etc., blind passion, love, fury; blind handwriting, type.
This analysis is used in word-formation too, to find out the word-meaning, the lexical restrictions of the stem, the part of speech, etc. Thus, the analysis of the derivational pattern N + ish shows that the suffix -ish is practically never combined with the noun-stems denoting units of time, space, etc. ("nourish"). They are usually noun-stems denoting living beings (clownish, boyish, etc.), and colour (reddish).
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CONCISE DICTIONARY OF LINGUISTIC TERMS
Краткий словарь-справочник лингвистических терминов
Аббревиатура (abbreviation) - слово, образованное из названий начальных букв или из начальных звуков слов, входящих в исходное словосочетание (инициальная аббревиатура).
Антонимия (antonymy) - семантическая противопоставленность, противоположность.
Антонимы (antonyms) - слова, имеющие противоположные значения. Основой антонимии является наличие в значении слова качественного признака, который может возрастать или убывать и доходить до противоположного.
Антропоним (proper name) - собственное имя людей.
Антропонимика - раздел языкознания, изучающий собственные имена людей.
Апокопа (apocope) - отпадение конечного безударного гласного, приводящее к сокращению слова.
Арго (argot) - язык отдельных социальных групп, сообществ, искусственно создаваемый с целью языкового обособления (иногда потайной язык), отличающийся наличием слов, непонятных людям непосвященным.
Арготизмы (argotisms) - слова и обороты, входящие в состав какого-либо арго.
Архаизмы (archaisms) - устарелые для определенной эпохи, вышедшие из употребления языковые элементы (слова, выражения, аффиксы), замененные другими.
Аферезис (aphaeresis) - тип словообразования способом усечения начала слова.
Аффикс (affix) - служебная морфема, т.е. часть слова, видоизменяющая лексическое либо грамматическое значение корня (основы) или выражающая отношения между словами в словосочетании и предложении; общее название всех морфем, за исключением корня.
Аффиксация (affixation) - присоединение аффиксов к корням или основам.
Валентность слова (valency of a word) - способность слова вступать в словосочетания с другими словами.
Варваризм (barbarism) - иноязычное слово или выражение, не до конца освоенное заимствующим языком, чаще всего в связи с трудностями грамматического освоения.
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Внутренняя форма слова (inner form of a word) - морфонологический состав основы, указывающий на мотивированную связь ее звучания с данным значением. Snowdrop - цветок, появляющийся из-под снега.
Вульгаризм (vulgarism) - грубое слово или выражение, выходящее за пределы литературной лексики.
Дейксис (deixis) - направление лингвистики, устанавливающее связь знаков с внешним миром, мотивы и интенции говорящих, ролевую структуру, структуру коммуникативных ситуаций.
Деминутив (diminutive) - уменьшительно-ласкательная форма слова.
Денотат (denotatum) - предмет или явление окружающей нас действительности, с которым соотносится данная языковая единица.
Дериват (derivative) - производное слово.
Деривационное значение (derivational meaning) - значение, создаваемое словообразовательными аффиксами, ограничивающее и уточняющее вещественное значение корня.
Деривация (derivation, affixation) - образование новых слов при помощи аффиксов.
Диалект (dialect) - разновидность общенародного языка, употребляемая сравнительно ограниченным числом людей, связанных общностью территориальной, социальной, профессиональной.
Диалектизмы (dialectisms) - слова из разных диалектов, нередко используются в языке художественной литературы со стилистической целью.
Диахрония (diachrony) - историческая последовательность развития отдельных языковых явлений и развитие системы языка в целом как предмет лингвистического изучения.
Дистрибутивный метод (distributional method) - в структурной лингвистике метод распределения языковых элементов по присущим данному языку законам.
Доминанта (dominant) - один из членов синонимического ряда, избираемый как носитель главного значения, подчиняющего себе все дополнительные смысловые и стилистические оттенки значения, выражаемые другими членами ряда.
Дублеты (doublets) - двойная разновидность данной языковой единицы.
Жаргон (jargon) - то же, что арго, но с оттенком уничижения.
Заимствования (borrowing proper, foreign word, loan-word) - иноязычные слова.
Звукоподражательные слова (phonetic symbols) - слова, по своему звуковому оформлению являющиеся воспроизведением рефлективных восклицаний людей, звуков и криков, издаваемых животными, птицами, звуков явлений природы, звуков, издаваемых предметами, и т.д.
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Значение слова (meaning of a word) - заключенный в слове смысл, содержание, связанное с понятием как отражением в сознании предметов и явлений объективного мира. Значение входит в структуру слова в качестве его содержания (внутренней стороны), по отношению к которому звучание выступает как материальная оболочка (внешняя сторона). Это единство внутреннего и внешнего в слове создается в результате установления постоянной и неразрывной связи между значением и звучанием. Значение слова и заключенное в нем понятие взаимосвязаны, но это не одно и то же. Понятие в слове всегда одно, а значений у слова может быть несколько. Понятие является объективным отображением окружающей нас действительности, а к значению может быть добавлена субъективная оценка. Значение слова складывается из его лексического значения, т.е. материального содержания, выражаемого основой слова, и грамматического значения, т.е. показателя различных отношений, обычно находящего свое выражение в формальной принадлежности слова. В самостоятельных словах лексическое значение преобладает над грамматическим, в служебных словах лексическое значение одновременно является и грамматическим.
Идиома (idiom) - фразеологическая единица или фразеологическое сращение.
Идиоматика (idiomatics) - совокупность идиом данного языка; раздел языкознания, изучающий идиомы.
Идиоматическое выражение (idiomatic expression) - то же, что идиома.
Идиоматичность (idiomaticity) - отсутствие мотивированности.
Имплицитный (implicit) - подразумеваемый, невыраженный, неразвернутый.
Инвариант (invariant) - структурная единица языка (фонема, морфема, лексема и т.д.) в отвлечении ее от конкретных реализаций.
Иноязычные слова (см. заимствования ) - слова, заимствованные из других языков. Заимствование является естественным следствием установления экономических, политических, культурных связей с другими народами, когда вместе с реалиями и понятиями приходят обозначающие их слова.
Интернациональная лексика (international words) - слова общего происхождения, существующие во многих языках с одним и тем же значением, но обычно оформляемые в соответствии с фонетическими и морфологическими нормами данного языка. Основную часть интернациональной лексики составляют термины из области науки и техники, общественно-политической жизни, экономики, литературы и искусства.
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Лексикология (Lexicology) - раздел языкознания, занимающийся изучением словарного состава языка.
Лексикология историческая - лексикология, изучающая словарный состав языка в его развитии (в диахроническом плане).
Лексикология описательная - лексикология, занимающаяся вопросами значения слов, их стилистической характеристикой, объемом, структурой словарного состава в синхронном плане.
Лексикон (vocabulary) - запас слов.
Лексическое значение слова (lexical meaning of a word) - содержание слова, т.е. устанавливаемая нашим мышлением соотнесенность между звуковым комплексом и предметом или явлением действительности, которые обозначены этим комплексом звуков. Носителем лексического значения является основа слова. Лексическое значение складывается из вещественного значения, носителем которого является корень слова (непроизводная основа), и деривационного значения, выражаемого словообразовательными аффиксами.
Метафора (metaphor) - употребление слова в переносном значении на основе сходства в каком-либо отношении двух предметов или явлений. В отличие от двучленного сравнения, в котором приводится и то, что сравнивается, и то, с чем сравнивается, метафора содержит только второе. Сходство между предметами или явлениями может быть основано на самых различных чертах.
Метод (method) - подход к изучаемому материалу, его систематизация и теоретическое осмысление.
Методика (methodics) - способ нахождения нового материала, т.е. совокупность приемов наблюдения, эксперимента и описания.
Методология (methology) - применение к процессу познания принципов мировоззрения, т.е. соотнесение полученных данных с другими фундаментальными науками, и в первую очередь с философией.
Метонимия (metonymy) - употребление названия одного предмета вместо названия другого предмета на основании внешней или внутренней связи между ними. Связь может быть между предметом и материалом, из которого предмет сделан, между содержимым и содержащим, между действием и орудием этого действия, между автором и его произведением, между местом и людьми, находящимися на этом месте.
Многозначность (polysemy) - наличие у одного и того же слова нескольких связанных между собой значений, обычно возникающих в результате развития первоначального значения этого слова. Многозначность возникает разными путями. Новое значение может образоваться путем переноса названия по сходству, по функции, по смежности, т.е. соприкасанию вещей в пространстве или во времени. См. метафора, метонимия, синекдоха.
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Моносемия (monosemy) - однозначность.
Морфема (morpheme) - значимая часть слова, далее неделимая. Морфемы корневые (root morphemes) и служебные (affixational) - приставка, суффикс, окончание и соединительная гласная.
Нейтральная лексика (neutral words) - слова, не прикрепленные к определенному стилю речи, имеющие стилистические синонимы (книжные, разговорные, просторечные), на фоне которых они лишены стилистической окраски.
Неологизм (neologism) - слово или оборот речи, созданные для обозначения нового предмета или выражения нового понятия. После того как слово входит в широкое употребление, оно перестает быть неологизмом, а некоторые со временем входят в разряд устаревших слов.
Номинативное значение слова (nominative meaning) - лексическое значение, непосредственно связанное с отражением в сознании предметов, явлений, отношений объективной действительности. Слова, имеющие номинативное значение, образуют свободные словосочетания.
Окказионализм     (nonce-word)     -     слово,     образованное     по непродуктивной   модели,   используемое   только   в   условиях  данного контекста.
Окказиональный (occasional) - не соответствующий общепринятому употреблению, носящий индивидуальный характер, обусловленный специфическим контекстом.
Омографы (homographs) - разные слова, совпавшие по написанию, но не по произношению. Омографы называют также графическими омонимами.
Омонимия (homonymy) - звуковое совпадение двух или нескольких языковых единиц, различных по значению.
Омонимы (homonyms) - слова, принадлежащие к одной и той же части речи и одинаково звучащие, но различные по значению.
Омонимы полные, или абсолютные, (complete homonyms) -омонимы, у которых совпадает вся система форм.
Омонимы частичные (partial homonyms) - омонимы, у которых совпадают по звучанию не все формы.
Омофоны (homophones) - разные слова, одинаково звучащие, но имеющие разное написание. Также называются фонетическими омонимами.
Омоформы (homoforms) - омонимичные формы; слова, совпадающие в своем звучании лишь в отдельных формах (той же части речи или разных частей речи). Омоформы также называют грамматическими омонимами.
Ономатопея (onomatopoeia) - звукоподражание, образование слов, условно воспроизводящих природные звуки, крики животных и т.д., а также создание слов путем звукоподражания.
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Основа слова (base, stem) - часть слова, в которой содержится его лексическое значение и которая остается, если отнять окончание и формообразующий суффикс.
Парадигма (paradigm) - совокупность форм словоизменения одного и того же слова.
Паронимия (paronymy) - близость двух или более слов по звучанию при различии их значения, создающая почву для их смешения в речи.
Паронимы (paronyms) - однокоренные слова, близкие по звучанию, но разные по значению или частично совпадающие в своем значении.
Пейоративный (pejorative) - содержащий отрицательную оценку, придающий неодобрительный оттенок значению, например, уничижительные суффиксы.
Профессионализм (professionalism) - слово или выражение, свойственное речи той или иной профессиональной группы.
Профессиональная лексика (professional lexis) - лексика, свойственная данной профессиональной группе, используемая в речи людей, объединенных общей профессией.
Прямое значение (direct meaning) - лексическое значение слова или выражения в собственном смысле в отличие от переносного значения; логическое значение в отличие от наслаивающихся на него эмоционально-экспрессивных оттенков.
Психолингвистика (psycholinguistics). 1. Отрасль языкознания, изучающая процесс речи с точки зрения соотношения между содержанием речевого акта и намерением лица говорящего (пишущего), делающего сообщение. 2. Отрасль языкознания, изучающая связи между содержательной стороной языка и общественным мышлением, общественной жизнью говорящего коллектива. Представляя собой синтез психологии и лингвистики, психолингвистика занимается такими проблемами, как воспринимаемость речи, закономерности овладения языком (развитие речи у детей, двуязычие), отношение лингвистических процессов к познанию и т.д.
Пуризм (purism) - стремление к сохранению языка в неприкосновенном виде, борьба против всяких новшеств (неологизмов, иноязычных заимствований), ограждение литературного языка от проникновения в него ненормированных лексических и грамматических элементов, что нередко является естественным для развития языка.
Разговорная лексика (colloquial words) - Слова, употребляющиеся в непринужденной беседе. » -
Расширение значения (expansion of meaning) - увеличение семантического объема слова в процессе исторического развития. Чаще всего расширение значения происходит в результате переноса названия по функции, выполняемой двумя предметами.
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Редупликация (reduplication) - полное или частичное повторение корня, основы или целого слова как способ образования слов, описательных форм, фразеологических единиц.
Релевантный (relevant) - способный служить для различения языковых единиц.
Рема (rheme) - при актуальном членении ядро высказывания, содержание сообщения, то, что говорящий сообщает, отправляясь от темы.
Референт (referent) - предмет мысли, отражающий предмет или явление объективной действительности и образующий то понятийное содержание, с которым соотносится данная единица.
Родной язык (native language) - язык, усваиваемый ребенком в раннем детстве путем подражания окружающим его взрослым.
Свободное словосочетание (free word-combination) - словосочетание, создаваемое в речи по одной из существующих синтаксических моделей, фразеологически не связанное, легко разлагающееся на составляющие его части.
Семантика (semantics). 1. Смысловая сторона (значение отдельных языковых единиц: морфем, слов, словосочетаний, а также грамматических форм). 2. То же, что семасиология.
Семантическое поле (semantic field). I. Совокупность явлений или область действительности, имеющие в языке соответствие в виде тематически объединенной совокупности лексических единиц. 2. Совокупность слов и выражений, образующих тематический ряд и покрывающих определенную область значений.
Семасиология (semasiology) - раздел языкознания, изучающий значения слов и выражений и изменения этих значений.
Семиотика (semiotics) - наука об общих свойствах знаковых систем, состоящая из трех частей: семантики, изучающей отношение знаков к обозначаемому, синтактики, рассматривающей отношения знаков между собой, и прагматики, исследующей отношения знаков и тех, кто ими пользуется.
Сигнификативный (significative) - выявляющий значение данной единицы семантического уровня (морфемы, слова и т.д.) в противопоставление другим единицам того же уровня.
Синекдоха (synecdoche) - перенос значения с одного явления на другое по признаку количественного отношения между ними: употребление названия целого вместо названия части, общего вместо частного и наоборот. Является разновидностью метонимии.
Синкопа (syncope) - выпадение звука или группы звуков внутри слова.
Синонимика (synonymy) - раздел лексикологии, изучающий синонимы.
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Синонимический ряд (synonymic set) - ряд лексических или фразеологических синонимов.
Синонимия (synonymy) - совпадение в основном значении (при сохранении различий в смысловых оттенках и стилистической окраске) морфем, слов, синтаксических конструкций, фразеологических единиц.
Синонимы (synonyms) - слова, близкие по своему значению, выражающие одно и то же понятие, но различающиеся или оттенками значения, или стилистической окраской, или и тем и другим. Синонимы, как правило, принадлежат к одной и той же части речи и выступают как взаимозаменяемые элементы высказывания.
Синонимы абсолютные (absolute, complete, perfect synonyms) -слова, полностью совпадающие по значению и употреблению, с возможным расхождением в сочетаемости.
Синонимы идеографические (ideographic synonyms) - синонимы, различающиеся оттенками значения.
Синонимы контекстуальные (contextual synonyms) - слова, сближающиеся своими значениями в условиях контекста.
Синонимы стилистические (stylistic synonyms) - синонимы, совпадающие по значению, но различающиеся принадлежностью к различным стилям речи, степенью употребительности, экспрессивной окраской и т.п.
Синхрония (synchrony) - состояние языка на определенном этапе исторического развития в качестве цельной системы лексических, грамматических и фонетических элементов как предмет лингвистического изучения.
Словарная статья (article, entry) - статья, разъясняющая заголовочное слово в словаре.
Словарный состав языка (wordstock) - вся совокупность слов, входящих в состав какого-либо языка, включая его основной словарный фонд.
Слово (word) - основная кратчайшая единица языка, выражающая своим звуковым составом понятие о предмете, процессе, явлении действительности, их свойствах или отношениях между ними. В слове сочетаются признаки: фонетический (звуковой комплекс), лексико-семантический (значение) и грамматический (морфологическая структура и составной элемент или потенциальный минимум предложения).
Словообразование (word-formation, word-building). I. Раздел языкознания, изучающий структуру слов и законы их образования. 2. Образование новых слов путем соединения друг с другом корневых и аффиксальных морфем либо безаффиксным способом по определенным моделям, существующим в данном языке.
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Словосочетание (word-combination) - соединение двух или более знаменательных слов, связанных по смыслу и грамматически, выражающее единое, но расчлененное понятие и представляющее собой сложное наименование явлений объективной действительности.
Словоформа (word form) - данное слово в данной грамматической форме.
Сравнительно-исторический метод (historical comparative method) - лингвистический метод (система научных приемов) восстановления незафиксированных прошлых языковых фактов путем их сравнения с соответствующими более поздними фактами, известными по письменным памятникам или живому употреблению в сопоставляемых языках. Применение сравнительно-исторического метода способствует изучению вопроса о закономерностях развития языка в отдаленную эпоху, выявлению исконных слов языка и заимствований, а также путей проникновения последних, позволяет установить генетическое тождество языковых единиц, главным образом в области фонетики и морфологии, дает материал для решения отдельных проблем, которыми занимается сравнительно-историческое изучение языков (происхождение родственных языков, их взаимоотношения в ходе исторического развития, черты общности и различия в этом развитии и т.д.).
Сужение значения (restriction of meaning) - уменьшение семантического объема понятия в процессе исторического развития или в контексте речевого употребления.
Суффикс (suffix) - служебная морфема, находящаяся после корня и служащая для образования новых слов.
Суффиксация (suffixation) - присоединение суффиксов к корням и основам как способ словообразования и формообразования.
Тема (theme) - при актуальном членении предложения та его часть, которая содержит что-то известное, знакомое и служит отправной точкой для передачи нового.
Термин (term) - слово или словосочетание, точно обозначающее какое-либо понятие, применяемое в науке, технике, искусстве. Термины, как правило, однозначны, им не свойственна также экспрессия.
Транскрипция (transcription) - передача звуков иноязычного слова (обычно собственного имени, географического названия, научного термина) при помощи букв русского алфавита.
Транслитерация (transliteration) - передача букв иноязычного слова при помощи букв русского алфавита.
Фразеологическая единица (phraseological unit) - лексически неделимое, устойчивое в своем составе и структуре, целостное по значению словосочетание, воспроизводимое в виде готовой речевой единицы.
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Фразеологически связанное значение слова (phraseologically bound meaning) - лексическое значение, существующее или приобретаемое только в составе фразеологической единицы.
Фразеологические выражения (phraseological expressions) - устойчивые в своем составе обороты, семантически делимые и состоящие полностью из слов со свободными значениями (что сближает их со свободными словосочетаниями), но в процессе общения воспроизводимые как готовые речевые единицы (что сближает их с фразеологическими единицами). К фразеологическим выражениям относятся поговорки и пословицы, носящие характер образной типизации, разного рода изречения, крылатые слова, а также устойчивые сочетания, выполняющие номинативную функцию.
Функциональные стили (functional styles) - стили, выделяемые в соответствии с основными функциями языка, связанными с той или иной сферой деятельности человека. Функциональные стили не образуют замкнутых систем, между стилями существует широкое взаимодействие, влияние одного на другие. Признаки, характеризующие отдельный стиль (преимущественное использование в нем определенных лексических средств, синтаксических конструкций и т.д.), повторяются в других языковых стилях, не говоря уже о том, что подавляющее большинство языковых средств является общим для всех стилей (межстилевые средства языка). Кроме того, следует иметь в виду, что стиль - категория историческая: подвижны не только границы между стилями, но и границы отдельного стиля в ходе его развития.
Эвфемизм (euphemism) - смягчающее обозначение какого-либо предмета или явления, более мягкое выражение вместо грубого.
Эксплицитный (explicite) - явно выраженный, развернутый.
Экстралингвистический (extralinguistic) - внеязыковой, относящийся к реальной действительности, в условиях которой развивается и функционирует язык. К экстралингвистическим условиям развития языка относятся в первую очередь общественно-политические факторы.
Этимология (etymology). 1. Раздел языкознания, изучающий происхождение и историю отдельных слов и морфем. 2. Происхождение и история слов и морфем.
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List of Literature

Baker S.J. The Australian Language. Sydney, 1945.
Endacott S.J. Australian Aboriginal Words and Place Names, 1955.
Ginzburg R.S., Khidekel S.S., Knyazeva G.Y., Sankin A.A. A Course in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow, 1966.
English Lexicology. Lectures compiled by students from the ST.Cyril & Methodious University, English Department – Skopje, Republic of  Macedonia.
Palmer F.R. Semantics. A new Outline. Cambridge Univ. Press, 1977.
Sweet H. The Practical Study of Languages. Oxford Univ. press, 1964. 
Беляева Т.М., Потапова И.А. Английский язык за пределами Англии. – Ленинград, 1961. 

CONTENTS
Introduction: the object of lexicology	
Etymological survey of the English language	
I.	Word structure and word formation	
Affixation	
Composition	
Conversion	
Shortening	
II.	Semasiology	
Meaning	
Lexical meaning: stylistic reference	
Change of meaning...	
Ambiguity of meaning	
Synonyms	
Euphemisms	
Antonyms.....	
Neologisms and archaisms.......	
III.	Phraseology	
Free word-groups and phraseological units.	
Classifications of phraseological units................	
IV.	Varieties of English....	
Standard English. National variants and local dialects......	
American English.	
Canadian English 
Australian English
 New Zealand English	
V.	Lexicography....................	
Conclusion: methods and procedures of lexicological analysis	
Appendix: Concise dictionary of linguistic terms	
List of literature…………………………………………………
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В.М. Широких, Л.П. Кудреватых
Теоретические материалы по лексикологии современного английского языка
Корректор М.В. Пермякова Оригинал-макет: Н.С. Елохина
Изд лиц. ЛУ№ 042 от 08.10.96.
Подписано в печать   .01.2004. Формат 60х84'/16. Напечатано на ризографе.
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Глазовский государственный педагогический институт 427621, г. Глазов, ул. Первомайская, д. 25
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